\ $ |$  c^E"""W2@'; 6h TROS    TROS TROSTROS TROSTROS  !TROS "#$%TROS &'()TROS *+,-RSETR+RSETRSET|2^ ean country. Carcass dragging, feeding signs, and presence of tree and ground nests were common features of livestock depredation sites. Direct observation of cattle depredation by Andean bears was reported at 3 sites in Colombia and Ecuador. No seasonal or cyclic patterns of depredation were discerned, and evidence suggested that bearlivestock conflicts were restricted to particular sites and involved problem bears. The conservation of Andean bears requires research on rapid ways of dealing with problem bears, as well as mitigation techniques designed to reduce perceived and actual conflicts between bears and livestock. N *w?wPR  *w?wPR v *w?wPR ,Andean bear, Bolivia, Colombia, conflict, depred ation, Ecuador, livestock, management, Peru, spectacled bear, Tremarctos ornatus, Venezuelan *w?wPRRV *w?wPRRV *w?wPRRV 3582BBV cCarr, M. M., J. Yoshizaki, F. T. Van Manen, M. R. Pelton, O. C. Huygens, H. Hayashi, and M. MaekawacOA multi-scale assessment of habitat use by asiatic black bears in central JapanO Ursus2002131-9,agriculture, Asiatic black bear, forest management, habitat use, Japan, mast, national park, planted forest, Ursus thibetanus japonicus2902BB` .Hightower, D. A., R. O. Wagner, and R. M. Pace.IDenning ecology of female American black bears in south central LouisianaI Ursus20021311-17,qAmerican black nbear, denning, litter size, location constancy, Louisiana, reproduction, Ursus americanus luteolusq2912BBj BPodruzny, S. R., S. Cherry, C. C. Schwartz, and L. A. LandenburgerBVGrizzly bear denning and potential conflict areas in the greater Yellowstone ecosystemV Ursus20027N~Obj EC:\PROGRAM FILES\PROCITE4\Styles\ANSI-American National Standards.posTimes New Roman Reference List. Obj )Obj x Record NumberAuthorTitleTDate,Volume@WorkformSTR#STR#aanthellalelesEPUDTRSLDOMS6lAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlDOMSAlAlAlAlADOMS6lAlAlAlAlAZElAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlAlDOMSAlAlAlAlATROS6,1TTROS&,TROSTROSRSETR+RSETRSETSETR+RSETRSET}cI+W AmAAmA)BARNES, JR., VICTOR G.//SMITH, ROGER B.//):ESTIMATES OF BROWN BEAR ABUNDANCE ON KODIAK ISLAND, ALASKA: Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1995101-9*During 1987-94 we used capture-mark-resight (CMR) methodology and rates of observation (bears/hour and bears/100 km2) Of unmarked brown bears (Ursus arctos middendorffi) during intensive aerial surveys (IAS) to estimate abundance of brown bears on Kodiak Island and to establish a baseline for monitoring population trends. CMR estimates were obtained on 3 study areas; density ranged from 216-234 bears/1,000 km2 for independent animals and 292-342 bears/1,000 km2 including dependent offspring. Rates of observation during IAS ranged from 1.4-5.4 independent bears/hour and 2.9-18.0 independent bears/100 km2 . Density estimates for independent bears on each IAS area were obtained by dividing mean number of bears observed during replicate surveys by estimated sightability (based on CMR-derived sightability in areas with similar habitat). Brown bear abundance on 21 geographic units of Kodiak Island and 3 nearby islands was estimated by extrapolation from CMR and IAS data, using comparisons of habitat characteristics and sport harvest information. Population estimates for independent and total bears were 1,800 and 2,600. The CMR and IAS procedures offer alternative means, depending on management o mA mAQ HMcCrory, Wayne P.//Herrero, Stephen M.//Jones, Greg W.//Mallam, Erica D.HHThe role of the B.C. provincial park system in grizzly bear preservationH Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990811-16*The role of the large provincial park system in British Columbia (B.C.) in protecting grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) populations, range and ecological variation was ^N~4 Ys^*w?wPRH*w?wPRH3792TEQZET9Gary J. Galbreath, Colin P. Groves, and Lisette P. Waits9SGenetic resolution of composition and phylogenetic placement of the Isabelline BearS Ursus  (2007)2007181*<We sequenced part of the mitochondrial control region of 2 Himalayan Ursus arctos isabellinus individuals and compared it with that of other U. arctos. Results indicate that the valid allopatric subspecies U. a. isabellinus represents an ancient clade and includes the Gobi bear of Mongolia as a relict population. E*w?wPR.*w?wPR./*w?wPR. *w?wPR.9*w?wPR.*w?wPR.\*w?wPR.,,Gobi bear, Ursidae, Ursus arctos isabellinus*w?wPR*w?wPR3792PR' *w?wPR'3792opes, Ursus americanus, Ursus arctosG*w?wPR'*w?wPR'*w?wPR' *w?wPR'3792opes, Ursus americanus, Ursus arctosG*w?wPR'*w?wPR'*w?wPR' *w?wPR'3792opes, Ursus americanus, Ursus arctosG*w?wPR'*w?wPR'*w?wPR' *w?wPR'3792opes, Ursus americanus, Ursus arctosG*w?wPR'*w?wPR'*w?wPR' *w?wPR'3792*w?wPR62uriM>?op  4<D LT\d l t |       !#$# ,%4% <%D&L&T(\)d*l+t,|-- -./011 2345679;<= ?AB$C,D4F<G DJLKTL\MdNlOtP|RSUU VXX Z[\^_`abcee fhi$k,l4n<oDpLqTs\tdulwtw |{{ }~  $,4<DLT\dlt| $, 4< DLTdzpf\RH>4*  vlbXND:0&|rh^TJ@6,"xndZPF<2( ~tj`VLB8.$zpf\RH>4*  vlbXND:0& <600 ha protected by provincial parks. B.C. parks support about 6% of the provincial grizzly population, contribute 5.6% of grizzly range, and represent about 1/3 of the 45 distinct landscapes in grizzly range, thus protecting ecological diversity. Nationally, B.C. provincial parks contribute about 27.5% of the total area of Canada's protected grizzly range and about 39% of the protected population. Internationally, B.C. provincial parks preserve grizzly bears in 2 unique global biogeographical provinces and contribute to 2 important Canadian-U.S. protected grizzly regions. Preliminary minimum viable population analysis showed that no B.C. provincial park is large enough to support the number of grizzly bears (393) considered necessary for long-term survival of genetic in-breeding and catastrophes should park populations become further isolated. Preservation of B.C.'s valuable grizzly bear resource therefore depends on sound management of large ecological systems that include large cores of protected wilderness and adjoining multiple-use lands. A comprehensive management program is recommended. d3 x Bz'K~'K 3 x Bz'K~'K )3 x Bz'K~'K10 mA mAQ(Sorensen, O. J.//Overskaug, K.//Kvam, T.(*Status of the brown bear in Norway 1983-86* Int. Conf. Bear Res and Manage.1990817-23*During 1983-1986 we conduing multiple-use lands. A comprehensive management program is recommended. d3 x Bz'K~'K 3 x Bz'K~'K )3 x Bz'K~'K10 mA mAQ(Sorensen, O. J.//Overskaug, K.//Kvam, T.(*Status of the brown bear in Norway 1983-86* Int. Conf. Bear Res and Manage.1990817-23*During 1983-1986 we conduN~ M4Dcted brown bear (Ursus arctos) surveys in Norway to determine bear distribution and abundance for comparison with similar work conducted in 1978-82 by Kolstad et al. (1984, 1986). Minimum number of bears was evaluated for each area. The estimated Norwegian bear population was 102-153 bears, including at least 20 reproductive females. The distribution pattern in the northern counties of Norway was similar to that found earlier, with a stable or increasing population. The distribution pattern in southern counties sharply contrasted that of the 1978-82 report, indicating either a decreasing population or 1978-1982 estimates that were too optimistic. Bear management plans were proposed in 1988 partly based on a definition of "viable population" as a population with a <15% chance of being reduced within 20 years. The viability of the different bear populations in Norway is discussed based on the minimum estimated number of females. No population fulfills the above definition. Future management should consequently be very restrictive to secure the small and scattered bear population in Norway for the future.* x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~7'KN x Bz'K~'K20 mA mAQHerrero, Stephen//Fleck, Susan\Injury to people inflicted by black, grizzly or polar bears: recent trends and new insights\ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990825-32*We update or extend data presented by Herrero (1985). Injury rates were low, 1980-1985. The highest rates were 317,700 and 328,645 park visitors per injury inflicted by black or grizzly bear in Kluane and Denali National Parks. Injury rates calculated against number of backcountry user nights were significantly higher for all parks where injury occurred, but this exaggerates the-N~ ,<L danger from bears in backcountry areas since day use is not included. In certain national parks such as Glacier (Montana) there appears to have been an increase in grizzly bear-inflicted injury to persons travelling off-trail. The potential danger from grizzly bears that are habituated to people and/or have learned to feed on people's food or garbage is stressed by focussing on 8 fatal, predatory attacks in Glacier (Montana), Yellowstone and Banff National Parks between 1967-1986. Habituated grizzly bears may also attract photographers who may be injured or killed by such bears. Carrying dead ungulates or imitating the sounds of prey may attract grizzly bears and this may lead to human injury. Five cases of grizzly bear-inflicted injury (including 2 deaths) were identified in which this appeared to have been a common circumstance. Additional evidence is cited supporting the idea that grizzly bear injuries inflicted during sudden encounters are most likely to occur in habitat where grizzly bears have been attracted by natural foods during the time when the injury occurred. A thorough search for records dated between about 1965-1985 of polar bear-inflicted injury revealed onl y 20 injurious incidents. In 15 or 16 of these the bear's motivation appeared to have been predation. Six people were killed in such incidents. At least 251 polar bears were killed during aggressiv e encounters. Only 5 or 6 aggressive interactions (3 or 4 leading to human injury) were attributed to females defending their young. Female polar bears appear to be less aggressive toward people in  Xdefense of young than are grizzly bears, but more aggressive than black bears.30 mA mAQ(Mattson, David J.!Human impacts on bear habitat use! Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990833-56*\Human effects on the bear habitat use are mediated throuN~ ^DTgh food biomass changes, bear tolerance of humans and their impacts, and human tolerance of bears. Large scale changes in bear food biomass have been caused by conversion of wildlands and waterways to intensive human use, and by the introduction of exotic pathogens. Bears consume virtually all human foods that have been established in former wildlands, but bear use has been limited by access. Air pollution has also affected bear food biomass on a small scale and is likely to have major future impacts on bear habitat through climatic warming. Major changes in disturbance cycles and landscape mosaics wrought by humans have further altered temporal and spatial pulses of bear food production. These changes have brought short-term benefits in places, but have also added long-term stresses to most bear populations. Although bears tend to avoid humans, they will also use exotic and native foods in close proximity to humans. Subadult males and adult females are more often impelled to forage closer to humans because of their energetic predicament and because more secure sites are often preempted by adult males. Although male bears are typically responsible for most livestock predation, adult females and subadult males are more likely to be habituated to humans because they tend to forage closer to humans. Elimination of human-habituated bears predictably reduces effective carrying capacity and is more likely to be a factor in preservng bear populations where humans are present in moderate-to-high densities. If humans desire to preserve viable bear populations, they will eit her have to accept increased risk of injury associated with preserving habituated animals, or continue to crop habituated bears while at the same time preserving large tracts of wildlands free from si &gnificant human intrusion. \40^N~ L\ mA mAQ2McLellan, Bruce N.ARelationships between human industrial activity and grizzly bearsA Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990857-64*Most grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) live outside parks and reserves and often have to contend with, among other things, resource extraction industries. These activities can affect individual bears and therefore populations by: 1) causing strong, energetically expensive reactions by bears that disrupt their normal behavior, 2) displacing bears from areas of human use, 3) altering habitats in which bears live, 4) disrupting the bears' social system, and 5) industrial personnel killing bears or increasing mortality rates indirectly by improving access for hunters, poachers, other resource users, and settlers. Grizzly bears are able to adapt to many habitat changes and a temporary increase of human presence. In most cases, increased motorized access that results in a long term increase of human activity and/or settlement with consequent increase in bears being shot is the most significant aspect of industrial developments. If an industrial activity is conducted with adequate guidelines to maintain important habitats, properly locate camps, incinerate garbage, restrict use of firearms, and close motorized access after the job is complete, the bear population probably will be maintained at a satisfactory level. Although many bears may be alive when an industry has completed its work, if access remains intact, the grizzly population is placed in a precarious position and may decrease in size and eventually be extirpated. Closing access after job completion is often physically and politically difficult. Industry personnel and government managers must take leading roles in planning, advertising, and i^N~ Td mplementing road closures. Cumulative effects models have been built to predict the impact of human activities on bear populations. These models are in early stages and require data to support t he coefficients used and the relationships between coefficients. Then they should be tested. One significant variable the models lack is the potential for a specific activity to be the seed for bloo ming additional and perhaps more harmful developments.  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K50 mA mAQ<McCutchen, Henry E.\Cryptic behavior of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado! x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K+ x Bz'K~'K Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990865-72*;Black bear (Ursus americanus) in many U.S. and Canadian national parks become habituated to humans. They are often bold, frequent human use areas and are generally a nuisance. At Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, the antithesis of this behavior has been observed in the black bear population. A 4-year study using radio telemetry and observation indicates that although many bears have home ranges in high human use areas, they are secretive and avoid humans and developed areas. The behavior of 2 of the park's radio-collared bears is documented and discussed.  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K60 mA mAQFGunther, Kerry A.TVisitor impact on grizzly bear activity in Pelican Valley, Yellowstone National ParkT Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990873-78*CVisua`z :j B\ll observations were used to determine if human activity affected grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) use of open meadow areas in Pelican Valley, Yellowstone National Park. Visitor compliance with bear management regulations and safety warnings were also evaluated. From May-September 1984-88, 944 bear observations were recorded. During this period, the study area was managed for 3 levels of backcountry use: open (both day use and overnight camping allowed), restricted use (day use only), and closed (no visitor use allowed). The average flight distance of grizzly bears to tree cover following disturbance by backcountry users was 422 m. When the valley was open to visitors, bear activity in areas greater than 500 m from forest cover was significantly reduced and bears avoided areas around occupied backcountry campsites. No differences in diurnal hourly activity patterns were observed among the open, restricted, and closed periods. Foot parties were more likely to be charged during an encounter with a grizzly bear than people on horseback. All incidents in which hikers were charged by bears involved groups of 1 or 2 people. Only 17% of the observed hiking parties followed the recommended group size of 4 or more people. Compliance with the area closure and day use only regulations was 99% and 83%, respectively. T x Bz'K~'K Bx Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K70 mA mAQP%Kasworm, Wayne F.//Manley, Timothy L.%ORoad and trail influences on grizzly bears and black bears in Northwest MontanaO Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990879-84*FRadio locations from 3 grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and 26 black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Cabinet Mountains of northwest Montana were analyzed to determine the effects of roads and trN~ dtails on seasonal habitat use patterns from 1983 to 1988. Two seasons, spring and fall, were identified based on food habits and habitat use. Distances from radio locations to the nearest open road and trail were compared to distances from random points to the nearest road and trail. Grizzly bears used habitat 0-914 m from open roads less than expected based on availability during spring and fall (P<0.05). Black bears used habitat 0-274 m from open roads less than expected during spring and used habitat 0-914 m from roads less than expected during fall. Grizzly bears used habitat 0-122 m from trails less than expected during spring and fall. Black bears used habitat 0-122 m from trails less than expected during spring and used habitat 0-305 m from trails less than expected during fall. Habitat availabitity appeared related to grizzly bear avoidance of trails, and black bear avoidance of roads and trails. Mean distance from grizzly bear radio locations to a seasonally closed road increased when the road was opened (P<0.001), though black bear locations did not (P=0.324). The benefits of road closures in bear management were discussed. & x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K80  mA mAQZ0.1) during construction and post-construction periods. Individual bears varied widely in their relative associations wi th the project, but several bears were commonly located near active construction. Impacts on denning were less than predicted because most bears denned in areas remote from and at elevations above pr oject features. Bears exhibited high fidelity to the same denning areas irrespective of the bears' association with project features. Total habitat lost to inundation and removal of vegetation was <0 .5% of the study area. Improved vehicular and foot access provided by constructed roads and powerlines, and the increased incentive for development of rural lands provided by surplus electric power, is expected to have long-term impacts on bears through increased disturbance and killing of bears by recreationists and settlers. Mitigation of the project included dedication of adjacent lands for wi^N~ s| ldlife and creation of a trust fund to support research and habitat maintenance for bears. w 5 x Bz'K~'K 5 x Bz'K~'K\ 5 x Bz'K~' K100  mA mAQx-Leonard, Richard D.//Breneman, Ray//Frey, Ray-fA case history of grizzly bear management in the Slims River area, Kluane National Park Reserve, Yukonf Int. Conf. Bear Res. an d Manage. 19908113-123*PA management planning program for Kluane National Park Reserve was completed in 1980. A major decision was made to develop a public transit system in the Sl im River Area to facilitate visitor access to a large valley glacier. The transit system was not built and the valley was managed as a backcountry hiking area for an interim period. Characteristics of grizzly bear-people conflicts were monitored from 1981 to 1987. Park staff and 2,603 registered overnight backcountry users recorded 503 grizzly observations. Observations of solitary bears incre ased from 40% of total bear observations in 1981 to 84% in 1987. Frequency of avoidance behavior by grizzlies decreased whereas apparent neutral and approach behaviors increased. Incidents defined as  serious were infrequent from 1981 to 1984 (n=3). Serious incidents sharply increased in 1985 (n=10) and continued to be relatively frequent in 1986 (n=6) and 1987 (n=9). Serious incidents were cate gorized as close approach or charge (n=10), pack robbing (n=8), food cache robbing (n=2) and disturbance of tent camps (n=4), facilities (n=3) and vehicles (n=1). Management actions resulted in the de ath of 5 grizzlies, relocation of 5 grizzlies and area closures. Our analysis of relevant documents from 3 national park planning and management processes indicated that grizzly bears were not adequaw7g 5 tely treated in plans and environmental assessments for the Slims River Area because of emphasis on the proposed public transit system. The relationship between habituation of grizzlies to people and food conditioning was not recognized in management of the Slims River Area as a wilderness hiking area. We considered national park management processes to be valid tools for grizzly management prov ~ided they are implemented by trained, knowledgeable staff that apply adequate information before making decisions. P120  mA mAQ?Tsubota, Toshio//Kanagawa, Hiroshi//Mano, Tsutomu//Aoi, Toshiki?ACorpora albicantia and placental scars in the Hokkaido brown bearA Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990 8125-128*The ovaries and uteri of 25 wild adult female Hokkaido brown bears (Ursus arctos yesoensis), killed by hunters during the March-May period from 1982 to 1986 in Hokkaido, Japan,  were observed macroscopically and histologically for the presence of corpora albicantia (CA) and placental scars (PS). The numbers of CA, PS and young were compared. The female bears were classifie d into 4 groups: solitary females, females accompanied by their cubs, yearlings, or 2-year-old young. CA were classified into 3 types (l, ll or lll) based on the degree of degeneration. Of the 3 typ es, only type l CA were regarded as formed recently. PS were classified into 2 types (new or old) according to size. The relationship among numbers of Type l CA, PS and young was examined for each g roup of females. Type l CA and new PS were observed in some solitary females. These findings may mean the occurrence of embryo loss during delayed implantation, abortion after placentation, and/or d eath of young after birth. D x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K130Dt4  mA mAQManville, Albert M. IILVariability of dental diseases in two populations of Great Lakes black bearsL Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908129-134*QBlack bears (Ursus americanus) were live-trapped, immobilized, and examined to determine the incidence of dental caries, broken and missing teeth, and jaw and bone trauma; and the incidence and cause(s) of periodontal disease in northern Wisconsin in 1974-1975 (N=95), and in Michigan's northern Lower Peninsula from 1977-1980 (N=35). Based on tooth sectioning, Wisconsin bears ranged in age from 0.5 to 1 5.5 years (average age for males and females was 4.5 and 6.02 years, respectively); Michigan bears ranged in age from 0.02 to 8.1 years (average age for males and females, 4.5 and 4.29 years, respecti vely). As expected, dental caries were common in both Wisconsin (9[10.5%] of 86 bears examined) and Michigan bears (7[20%] of 35). In both cases, caries appeared to develop in older animals, ranging  from 3.5 to 15.5 years of age in the Wisconsin sample and 3.5 to 8.1 years of age in the Michigan sample. Bears suffering from periodontal disease varied considerably between cohorts. In Wisconsin,  only 1 (1.1%) of 95 bears, a 5.5-year-old female, was infected with the disease. In Michigan, however, 13 (37%) of 35 bears had periodontal disease in varying degrees of severity, suffering tooth lo ss, infection, edema, bleeding, and jaw and gum atrophy. There was insufficient evidence, however, to indicate that bacteria (N=12) caused the disease. Using 2-dimensional isoelectric focusing, 5 sa mples of blood serum from diseased bears contained a minor protein band not present in disease-free samples. The results could not be replicated from other diseased bears, however. Selenium levels w^N~ ere low in bears examined (0.066-0.74 ug Se/ml serum), and although baseline values are not known for black bears, insufficient quantities of selenium, in bear diets in Michigan's Lower Peninsula sele nium-deficient belt are suspected of causing or at least contributing to the disease. Although periodontal disease was reported as age-dependent in other studies, such was not the case in Michigan (di sease range=1.75-6.5-years-old). Winter movements of several seriously-infected bears were related to disease infection.   x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K 04 x Bz'K~'K140 mA mAQ Floyd, Timothy//Nelson, Ralph A. Bone metabolism in black bears Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908135-137*]Denning bears maintain normal serum calcium concentration and do not develop osteoporosis after months of recumbency. A circulating substance may be responsible for this previously undescribed phenomenon. Further investigation of its potentvial theraputic usefulness in man makes preservation of all ursine species an important management priority.]150 mA mAQ Watts, P.D. UComparative weight loss in three species of ursids under simulated denning conditionsU Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908139-141*Captive animals were used to conduct 3 simulated denning experiments on each North American Ursid species. One polar bear was studied in its natural maternity den. Initial weight of the study animals ranged from 70 to 285 kg (+- 1 kg). Although the initial weight between black and grizzly bears and between grizzly and polar bears overlapped, the results provide evidence of a species-specific rate of weDtV~ night loss. The average body weight loss per day of all of the study animals ranged from 0.18 to 0.91 kg. The present data combined with the previously reported information on metabolic rates are used to calculate the caloric equivalent of weight loss. These calculations indicate that polar bears may have preferential protein catabolism and/or elevated water loss during denning. 160 mA mAQSchoen, John W.8Bear habitat management: A review and future perspective8 Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908143-154*Throughout the world, bears are declining in numbers and range as habitat is reduced and bear-human interactions increase. Although ursids are widely distributed and inhabit a variety of habitats, they possess a number of biological characteristics that make them particularly vulnerable to conflict with humans. The habitat concept is discussed relative to the unique characteristics of bears. Because bears are wide- ranging species of landscapes, habitat relationships must be evaluated on a broader context than habitat types per se. Human activities and land uses must be factored into bear habitat relationships. Forest clearing and road building, in particular, are common problems for the conservation and management of many bear populations. An understanding of the processes of habitat fragmentation and population extinction is necessary for maintaining viable bear populations in the face of increasing habitat destruction and isolation. Several management tools and research needs for bear habitat management are discussed. 170 mA mAQ"Kansas, John L.//Raine, R. Michael"Methodologies used to assess the relative importance of ecological land classification units to black bears in Banff National Park, Alberta|M} 9 Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908155-160*Methodologies of a 3-year study of black bear (Ursus americanus) habitat use in Banff National Park, Alberta are presented. The study was designed to determine if black bear habitat use could be described by an existing 1:50,000 scale Ecological (Biophysical) Land Classification (ELC) of Banff National Park. Fifteen bears were radio-collared and their use of ecological land units (ecosites) was determined through 1,855 locations. Feeding signs were recorded and 466 scats collected. Seasonal ecosite importance ratings on a 5-tier scale were assigned using a 3-step process. First, a subjective assessment was conducted that relied on the biologists' field experience during the study, results of scat analysis, and tabulation of feeding signs found. Second, the telemetry results were analyzed for the observed versus expected use of ecosites by bears as determined by the area of each ecosite. Third, a food habits model that was based on the relative percent occurrence of ELC vegetation types and key bear foods within each ecosite was used to derive a second set of seasonal ecosite importance ratings. From 77-90% of seasonal ecosite ratings either matched for all three methods, or differed by 1 rating class between the subjective and modeled techniques. This strong consistency between rating methods indicates that the relative importance of closed legend ecosites at a 1:50,000 scale of mappings can be discerned within a 5-tier rating system. It is cautioned that at this scale of mapping, the rating classe s serve only as a first-order planning tool. High ratings should raise a red flag to managers who must then conduct site-specific investigations. /! x Bz'K~'K! K x Bz'K~'KR! x Bz'K~'K180^N~ J mA mAQ%Mykytka, James M.//Pelton, Michael R.%UManagement strategies for Florida black bears based on home range habitat compositionU Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908161-167*Florida black bears (Ursus americanus) were radio monitored from October 1976 through July 1978. Composite home range of 11 animals was evaluated to identify important habitat components in the Osceola National Forest (ONF), Florida. Large swamp systems and surrounding pine flatwood communities were major components of bear habitat. The composite home range, which covered 49% (303 km) of ONF, included 7.5 of the 10 major swamps. Pine forest cover/stand types accounted for 60% of the composite home range. The composite home range also included 60% (19,003 ha) of forest stand types classified as sawtimber and 35.5% (6,946 ha) classified as poletimber in ONF. Preservation and restoration of the interconnectivity of large swamps and forested upland buffers surrounding these swamps, and maintaining longer timber rotation would encourage bear use and reduce the vulnerability of bears to overharvest.  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K:~'Kn x Bz'K~'K190 mA mAQNoyce, Karen V.//Coy, Pamela L.cAbundance and productivity of bear food species in different forest types of northcentral Minnesotac Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908169-181*Growth and reproduction of black bears (Ursus americanus) have been linked to food availability, particularly berries and nuts. However, quantitative data on availability of fruits in different habitats are lacking. Fruit production is highly variable and precise measurements such as berry counts are very time consuming. We used visual ratings in conjunction with syste0N~ matic sampling to characterize the areal coverage and productivity of 22 species of herbs and shrubs that produce food for bears in 11 common forest types in northcentral Minnesota. We made sample counts of berries and nuts to relate visual ratings to fruit biomass. Abundance of fruit-producing species was highest in regenerating (5-15-year-old) aspen (Populus tremuloides) stands, but total fruit production was highest in 8-20-year-old red pine (Pinus resinosa) plantations that contained interspersed openings of windrowed slash. Fruit yields were poorest under dense (>80% closed) canopies and in lowland forest types, but lowlands provided a different array of species from uplands. Subjective ratings were less precise than actual berry counts but could be conducted more quickly, and they were accurate enough to distinguish important differences among stands. Because many stands could be surveyed during the short berry season, the technique enabled us to compare fruit yields across years and among different forest types, ages and canopy densities. ( x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'KL x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'KZ x Bz'K~'K200 mA mAQ"Powell, Roger A.//Seaman, D. Erran"EProduction of important black bear foods in the Southern AppalachiansE Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908183-187*1Production of foods has been linked to population sizes, social organization and mating strategies of many vertebrates, yet few studies of bears have quantified food production. In the Southern Appala'WN~ chian Mountains of North Carolina, we quantified production of 2 important foods for black bears (Ursus americanus) during 1986-1988 and the U.S Forest Service quantified a third between 1962 and 1973. Annual production of squaw root (Conopholis americana) averaged 4.14 kg/ha whereas annual production of berries (Vaccinium spp., Gaylussacia spp., Rubus spp.) averaged 52 kg/ha in areas with berry bush cover, which translates to 2.6 kg/ha over the whole forest (including areas without berry cover). Mean gross energy production by squaw root was 4.97 x 10 3rd. power kcal/ha and by berries, 1.64 x 10 3rd. power kcal/ha. Current mean acorn (Quercus spp.) production in the study area is expected to be similar to the 58.1 kg/ha measured between 1962 and 1973. This production of food is significantly higher than that reported for black bears in northern Minnesota.  + x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'Kz x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K< x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K$ x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K210 mA mAQ?Clevenger, Anthony P.//Purroy, Francisco J.//Pelton, Michael R.?ZMovement and activity patterns of a European brown bear in the Cantabrian Mountains, SpainZ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908205-211*7The first capture of European brown bear (Ursus arctos) in Spain occurred in the National Hunting Reserve of Riao on 16 October 1985. An adult male wGwN~ Oas radio-marked and movements and activities were monitored until September 1988. Distances between daily radio-locations ranged from <0.1 km to 20.5 km and averaged 1.6 km. The 2 extremes were attributed to food availability, particularly winter-starved ungulates, and breeding. Seasonal home ranges varied from 39 km (fall/winter) to 1,272 km (breeding). Movements during 1987 and 1988 totaled 246 and 1,308 km, respectively. Seasonal activity data from diel recordings (n=92) indicated that the bear's activity was greatest during breeding period (43%). Diel activity patterns were crepuscular year-round. Daytime activity was lowest during post-denning and highest in fall/winter, averaging over 50% active. Food availability, breeding season, and levels of human activity were felt to be the most important factors influencing this bear's movements and activity patterns in the Cantabrian Mountains of Spain. * x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K5 x Bz'K~'K230 mA mAQ#Smith, Tommy R.//Pelton, Michael R.#UHome ranges and movements of black bears in a bottomland hardwood forest in Arkansas.U Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908213-218*Between July 1979 and May 1982 movements of 23 radio-tagged black bears (Ursus americanus) were studied in a remnant bottomland hardwood forest in eastern Arkansas. Estimates of annual and seasonal home range varied substantially within age-sex groups. Mean annual home ranges of males were significantly larger than those of females in adult and subadult age classes. Within sex classes, mean annual home ranges of adult and subadults were similar. The size of annual home range was inversely related to habitat diversity and, in adult males, to weight. Typically, bears used si+[N~ gnificantly larger ranges in summer, when their diets were complex and breeding occurred, than in spring or fall-winter, when their diets were simple. Home ranges of 4 neighboring males overlapped considerably. Among 2 groups of females, home range overlap varied and may have been related to reproductive condition or kinship. Radio-tagged bears did not disperse from the study area nor far from their natal ranges, indicating that this remnant population is closed. I x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K240 mA mAQ6Garner, Gerald W.//Knick, Steven T.//Douglas, David C.6MSeasonal movements of adult female polar bears in the Bering and Chukchi SeasM Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908219-226*Ten adult female polar bears (Ursus maritimus) were fitted with satellite telemetry collars during March 1986 in the Kotzebue Sound area of the Chukchi Sea. During March-April of 1987, two of these bears were refitted with satellite telemetry collars and an additional 10 adult females were collared in the northern Bering and eastern Chukchi seas. Data for 1,560 point locations recorded through May 1988 indicated that female polar bears in the Bering and Chukchi seas were resident in western Alaskan waters from November through March, then moved northward with the receding pack ice during April and May. They remained in the northern and northwestern Chukchi Sea during June through September, often adjacent to the Soviet coastline. Satellite telemetry data indicated that 4 females marked in Alaskan waters of the Chukchi Sea apparently denned in the vicinity of Wrangel Island during winter 1987/1988. Denning in American territory of bears marked in the ChukcZJz Qhi and Bering seas has not been documented using satellite telemetry data. Some polar bears moved from the Chukchi Sea into the western Beaufort Sea during summer and fall, then returned to the Chukchi and Bering seas the following winter. Movements of bears from the Chukchi Sea into the central or eastern Beaufort Sea were not documented through to the spring 1988. These data document that polar bears occurring in the Bering and Chukchi seas are shared internationally between the United States and the Soviet Union.  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K 3 x Bz'K~'K250 mA mAQ$Nagy, John A. S.//Haroldson, Mark A.$fComparisons of some home range and population parameters among four grizzly bear populations in Canadaf Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908227-235*Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare annual and seasonal activity for adult males, adult females with cubs, and adult females without cubs among grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) of the northern Yukon Territory; Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula and Richards Island, Northwest Territories; west-central Alberta; and Jasper National Park, Alberta. Seasons were spring-early summer (15 May to 21 July) and mid-summer-early fall (22 July to 21 September). Multiple comparisons of mean class ranks from significant K-W tests (P<0.05) were used to identify statistically distinct population subsets. These comparisons showed adult females without cubs in northern Yukon used annual and seasonal ranges that were significantly smaller than those for the same class of bears in the other study areas. Adult males in northern Yukon had the smallest annual home ranges. Bears in northern Yukon had lighter spring weights, were older, had the highest population density (26-30 bears/)Y~ 1,000 km) and estimated standing biomass (243 kg/100 km), and were unexploited. Differences in home range size estimates were primarily attributed to differences in population densities among study areas. p x Bz'K~'K p x Bz'K~'Kp x Bz'K~'K260 mA mAQ3Bjrvall, Anders//Sandegren, Finn//Wabakken, Petter3JLarge home ranges and possible early sexual maturity in Scandinavian bearsJ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908237-241*Radio-collared brown bears were studied in 2 areas, one located in northernmost Sweden, the other in the centre of the Scandinavian Peninsula on both sides of the border between Norway and Sweden. Most bears were tracked on snow in spring and radio-collared after being darted from a helicopter. When possible all bears were monitored once a week by fixed-wing aircraft. Some bears were monitored more continuously several days each week by car from forest roads. In 1984-88, 48 individual bears were radio-equipped in the project. Males used larger home ranges than females. In the northern study area 4 adult males had minimun annual ranges of 726-2,634 km. Seven adult females in the same area used annual home ranges of 171-1,002 km. Eight adult males in the southern study area used annual home ranges of 1,200-4,297 km, while minimum annual home ranges of 4 adult females in the same area ranged between 254-531 km. Bimonthly aerial monitoring would have given home ranges of both adult males and adult females of approximately 60% of those obtained by weekly monitoring. A female in the north, monitored since she was a yearling, had her first litter of $cubs at 5 years of age. 270FJz :j  mA mAQ"Seaman, D. Erran//Powell, Roger A."4Identifying patterns and intensity of home range use4 Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908243-249* Assessing patterns of concentrated and diffuse use of an animal's home range is an important component of understanding ecological and behavior processes. We present the Area Independent Method (AIM), a graphical and quantitative technique for identifying the pattern of home range use (i.e., clumped or even) and for distinguishing between heavily and lightly used parts of an individual's home range when clumping is present. This technique does not require that the data have any specified statistical distribution. The results of the AIM are compared with those from Samuel et al. (1985) when both methods are applied to radio-telemetry locations of 18 black bears (Ursus americanus). Total home range size has a lesser effect on the size of the core area identified by the AIM than by Samuel et al.'s (1985) method. Both methods result in core area usage that is little affected by total home range size. This technique provides an objective method for comparing areas of concentrated and peripheral use among individuals. < x Bz'K~'K< x Bz'K~'KY< x Bz'K~'K280 mA mAQ"Zimmerman, John W.-A critical review of the error polygon method- Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908251-256*cThe Error Polygon Method (EPM) of Heezen and Tester (1967) is used most frequently to quantify telemetry error. Complete scientific reporting for this method should include the confidence arcs with associated confidence levels, a measure of#SN~ _ distance from the receiver to the estimated location, and a measure of the angle of intersection. The EPM assumption of a normal distribution of bearing errors was rejected with a large data base (n=940) collected on 13 transmitter locations that resulted in 388 estimated locations. Empirical data of actual error demonstrated the EPM's ability to delineate 90% error polygons that contained the actual location >90% of the time, although both the area and longest diagonal of the error polygons were 6.3 and 7.4 times, respectively, larger than actual error. The EPM did not give an accurate me%asure of location error. c290 mA mAQ,>Van Daele, Lawrence J.//Barnes, Victor G. Jr.//Smith, Roger B.>?Denning characteristics of brown bears on Kodiak Island, Alaska? Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908257-267* Investigations of brown bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi) denning ecology in 2 areas of Kodiak Island, Alaska, revealed that subpopulations of bears living within 70 km of each other had developed noticeably different denning behaviors. One hundred and fifteen radio-collared brown bears were located in 321 dens. The relative order in which bears in various reproductive categories entered their dens was similar in both study areas; females entered dens earlier than most males, and pregnant females generally entered dens earliest. Female bears in Southwest Kodiak, generally entered their dens 2 to 3 weeks later than their counterparts in the Terror Lake area. We hypothesize that this variation was related to the relative food availability in the 2 areas during late autumn. Emergence chronology was similar in both areas. Males were generally the 1st group to emerge from their dens, and females with new cubs were usually last. Bears at Terror Lake preferred steep K{~ slopes in alpine habitat for den sites. In Southwest Kodiak, midslope habitat and moderate slopes were preferred denning habitat. Two areas with high concentrations of dens were identified in the Terror Lake area. A high degree of fidelity to specific den sites was exhibited by individual brown bears on Kodiak. Two notable anomalies in denning behavior were observed in this study; use of multiple dens by 27 bears and failure to enter dens by 8 bears. Management implications of the differences in the denning ecology of these subpopulations are discussed.  x Bz'K~'K [ x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K300 mA mAQ6Graber, David M.?Winter behavior of black bears in the Sierra Nevada, California? Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908269-272*Black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Sierra Nevada range of California do not reliably exhibit the classic pattern of compulsory winter dormancy generally reported for this species. Pregnant females and most other adults hibernate for approximately 3.5 months, but only 37% of males are winter dormant. Winter-active bears tend to use lower elevations where snow cover is sporadic, growth after autumn rains provides herbaceous foods, and acorns may remain on the ground. Warmer temperatures at these lower elevations also reduce energy costs for active bears. The absence of a single environmental or physiological factor that discriminates between winter-active and winter-dormant bears, however, suggests that a complex suite of factors affects a bear's decision to remain active or den.   x Bz'K~']K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K310V!Q~  mA mAQ@ Mack, John A.  0.10). Yearlings after separation from their mothers became progressively independent of their mothers' range. Mean distances between mothers and offspring, and between siblings after breakup, increased each month as family bonds began to weaken and exploratory movements took place. Six of 7 yearlings survived until the following winter although 1 shed his collar before denning and his fate was unknown; all other yearlings returned and located dens in their respective maternal home ranges. 7 x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'Kc x B z'K~'K330  mA mAQT"Raine, R. Michael//Kansas, John L."^Black bear seasonal food habits and distribution by elevation in Banff National Park, Alberta ^ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990 8297-304*}The food habits and distribution by elevation of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Banff National Park, Alberta, were investigated during a 3-year radio-telemetry study. Analy sis of feeding signs indicated that the typical year is divided into the following bear food seasons: 1) green-up (den exit to mid-June), when horsetails (Equisetum spp.) and graminoid vegetation (gra} N~  sses, sedges and rushes) formed the major portion of the diets of bears, with importance values of 38.2 and 34.2% respectively; 2) ant (mid-June to mid-July), when bears consumed ants (Formicidae) and  ant larvae to a large extent (69.3%); 3) buffaloberry (mid-July to end-August), when bears fed upon buffaloberries (Shepherdia canadensis: 91.4%) once they ripened in mid-summer; 4) post-buffaloberry  (end-August to den entry), when, once buffaloberries had fallen from the bushes, bears switched to alternate foods such as crowberries (Empetrum nigrum: 85.1%) bearberries (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: 1 1.1%) and juniper (Juniperus communis) berries (0.7%). Some bears were found to feed primarily upon crowberries during this season, while others mainly ate bearberries. The mean elevation at which a ll collared bears were located ranged from 1,500-1,543 m during the first 3 seasons, but increased to 1,694 m during the post-buffaloberry season. Some bears, however, stayed at low elevations (x=1, 463 m) during the fall and fed upon bearberries. Those that fed upon crowberries during the post-buffaloberry season had a mean elevation of 1,768 m, while those that fed upon high-elevation bear berries and white-bark pine (Pinus albicaulis) nuts had a mean elevation of 1,818 m. >  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K    x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K   x Bz'K~'Kz  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x^N~ $ Bz'K~'KP  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K(  x Bz'K~'K340! mA mAQ^Barnes, Victor G. Jr.eThe influence of salmon availability on movements and range of brown bears on southwest Kodiak Islande Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908!305-313*BBrown bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi) movements and seasonal range were examined in relation to the temporal and spatial distribution of salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) on southwest Kodi!ak Island, Alaska, from 1983 to 1987. Salmon were available to bears from late June to mid-December and were utilized by all sex and age classes. From 50-89% of adult females fished at _2 separate a!reas of salmon abundance each year. Mean composite summer range of females tracked 2-5yrs (108 km) was much greater than either spring (13 km) or fall (26 km) range. Annual summer range of 8 femal!es tracked 4 consecutive years averaged 40 km; a smaller mean area of primary use (12 km) reflected a pattern of movement between areas of concentrated food. Females did not restrict their movement! patterns in years they were accompanied by new (<1yr) cubs. Males fished for salmon at the same sites used by females but traveled between those areas more often than females. Annual variation in m!ovement patterns was due apparently to behavioral differences among individual bears as well as yearly fluctuations in berry production, salmon availability, and unknown factors. Important bear feedi!ng areas in this region can be conserved by monitoring salmon escapements together with associated bear use, and by restricting human access at particular sites.  M x Bz'K~'K!M x Bz'K~'KmM x Bz'K~'K M x Bz'K~'KM x Bz'K~'K350$TDt ," mA mAQhFagen, Robert//Fagen, JohannagPlay behavior of brown bears (Ursus arctos) and human presence at Pack Creek, Admiralty Island, Alaska.H x Bz'K~'K "H x Bz'K~'K=H x Bz'K~'K Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908315-319*Brown bears of all ages play. They use fighting movements" and postures to interact harmlessly with conspecifics, they chase birds, they roll and slide, and they manipulate objects. Individual bears at the Pack Creek estuary on northern Admiralty Island pla"yed from less than 1% to over 20% of their total time in sight in 1987-8. Play frequencies in 1987-8 were independent of presence or absence of human visitors. 360# mA mAQr#Rogers, Lynn L.//Wilker, Gregory W.#aHow to obtain behavioral and ecological data from free-ranging, researcher-habituated black bearsa Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1#9908321-327*s A study was conducted in northeastern Minnesota from 1986-1989 to determine the feasibility of habituating black bears (Ursus americanus) to observers for behavioral and ec#ological research. Of 18 males and 8 females that repeatedly visited an artificial feeding site in the presence of humans, 3 2-year-old females were radio-collared for further habituation away from t#he site. The 3 females were repeatedly located, fed, and accompanied at various locations in their territories. After 50-100 hours of this additional contact, each bear accepted human presence and m#ostly ignored observers that followed 1-10 m behind. The bears were no longer fed in their territories except for the feeding of scat markers for digestion studies. The bears were observed for 24- oBr2~ $4#r 48-hour periods approximately weekly as they matured, reproduced, and raised cubs. While being followed, they foraged, napped, slept through nights, showed REM and non-REM sleep, mated, played, nur#sed their cubs, captured young animals, maintained territories, marked bear trees, prepared dens, and began hibernation. They relied on natural foods and showed activity and movement patterns similar# to daily and annual patterns of 103 non-habituated bears that were radio-tracked previously in approximately the same area. A field computer with an internal clock was programmed to aid in the r#ecording of activities, habitat use, food consumption, and weather. A personal computer was programmed to sort and tabulate the data and calculate 1) time spent in each activity, 2) time spent in eac# h cover type, 3) number of bites taken of each food in each cover type, and 4) time spent in each activity and cover type in each weather condition. The computer calculated these time-activity budget# s for single 24-hour observation periods or for any combination of observation periods specified. Problems of excessive hunting loss, habitual nuisance behavior, or appreciable observer injury did no# t occur. Study results were directly useful to forest managers for identification of opportunity areas for habitat preservation or improvement. Results provided new insights into black bear diet, bi# oenergetics, foraging strategies, activity patterns, sociobiology, communications, and bear-human interactions. Drawbacks were few study animals and limited study area. Comparative studies are needed# in new locations, involving additional age and sex classes, additional physiological data, and additional behavior regimes such as might be exhibited by translocated bears, nuisance bears, or bears w^N~ R,<#hose ranges have been altered by fire development, insect defoliation, or extensive timber management. x A x Bz'K~'K A x Bz'K~'K A x# Bz'K~'K370$ mA mAQ:Dean, Frederick C.UBrown bear density, Denali National Park, Alaska, and sighting efficiency adjustment.U Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1987737-43*{Aer$ial surveys conducted in 1983 over a stratified random sample from about 2,500 km in the northeastern part of Denali National Park were used to estimate the brown bear (Ursus arctos) population. Twe$nty three flights, totaling 68 hours, were made in a low-flying, fixed-wing aircraft; the sample coverage totaled 4,590 km. Aerial counts were calibrated against simultaneous, multi-observer ground $coverage. A new technique combining digitized topographic and vegetation information was used to adjust for sighting efficiency. Calibration results and plot characteristics were combined to estimat$e sighting efficiency on all plots. The minimum density estimates for the study area, based on animals seen, were 1/44, 1/70 and 1/476 km for individual bears, bear units, and families, respectively$. The same values expanded by estimated sighting efficiency were 1/31, 1/49, and 1/163.S x Bz'K~'K S x Bz'K~'KS x Bz'K~'K$ 58% mA mAQ?#Egbert, Allan L.//Stokes, Allen W.#@The social behaviour of brown bears on an Alaskan salmon stream.@ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1974341-56*DISCUSS%ION - pp. 54-55 - Recent comparative studies on the social behaviour of some species of Canidae indicate solitary forms have a smaller, less complex array of close-contact visual social signals than tBr 4D%he gregarious species (Kleiman 1967; Fox 1970). These results suggested social species have evolved communication repertoires to minimize aggression among group members by the substitution of rituali%zed behaviour for actual fighting. Brown bears seem to fit this pattern in that being solitary they do not have a wide assortment of visual signals in comparison to other carnivores. 'Submission' po%stures, for example, are lacking; the nearest analogous behaviour in brown bears is similar (perhaps homologous) to the 'defensive threat' Leyhausen (1956) described for felids. Bears further lack th%e dramatic forms of 'weapons threat' (Geist 1971) typical of many other carnivore species (e.g. retraction of the lips to expose the canines). The small tail of bears precludes its value as a signali%ng device (Stonorov & Stokes 1972). Yet despite retaining conservative patterns of social behaviour, most bears accommodated easily to conspecific proximity at McNeil Falls. The greatest changes %in behaviour occurred among adolescents and sub-adults. Adults of both sexes were neither as wary at the onset of the fishing season nor did they habituate to the same extent as younger animals. Whe%reas non-agonistic relationships actually developed and persisted between some adolescent males, the behaviour of adults changed only by degree in that they tolerated closer proximity, with neither a % concomitant increase in high-intensity threats nor actual fighting. Low-intensity aggression (head-low threats) by all bears gradually increases as distances declined and reflected an increasing unwi% llingness on the part of interacting bears to give way. Bears became progressively less likely to initiate encounters with animals that were appreciably higher is social status; in 1973, adolescent m^N~ <L% ales initiated only 23 percent (24 of 103) of their encounters with the highly aggressive and more dominant females with young. While there was no group integration and coordination typical of social% carnivores, and while individual relationships were flexible, the sum of these factors resulted in formation of a social organization that was relatively stable. The presumed relationship between th% e social organization of a species and complexity and quantity of close-contact social signals has been questioned by Kleiman & Eisenberg (1973). They suggest that information value of signals may be% as important or more so than complexity or number, and that the context of an interaction may carry considerable information as well. Intensity of brown bear aggression was strongly related to %salmon abundance. Formation of a stable brown bear social system did not result in a more efficient exploitation of salmon, but rather salmon abundance determined in large part the degree of social s%tability. A decline in salmon numbers was reflected by an immediate increase in intolerance among the bears. There is evidence that lions (Panthera leo), a gregarious species, also show significant %increases in aggression when food becomes scarce (Shaller 1972; Kleiman & Eisenberg 1973). There is growing evidence that killing and cannibalism may be common among bears (Larsen et al. 1972). %Bears responsible in eye-witness accounts are generally described as large or are known to be adult males. The wariness most bears retain for large males at McNeil River indicates they are perceived a%s a serious threat. Bears in the young age classes and sows with young are most wary of males, but even oestrous females reflect this pattern, seeming more receptive to sexually-mature, but relativel^N~ DT%y small, adolescent males than to the big adults. Regulation of black bear populations is related to mortality in young age clases that is induced by adult males (Kemp, this volume, Paper 17). Circum%stantial evidence suggests the same may be true for brown bears. L x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K63& mA mAQF"Stirling, Ian//Derocher, Andrew E."KFactors affecting the evolution and behavioral ecology of the modern bears.K Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908189-204&*( The present distribution and abundance of the ursids is but an ephemeral reflection of an evolutionary path that began with the first identifiable bear, the dawn bear (Ursavus elmensis), 20 milli&on years ago in the early Miocene epoch. Although the dawn bear was only the size of a fox terrier, by the Pleistocene its desendents had evolved into some of the largest terrestrial carnivores the w&orld has known. Most bear species evolved in the northern hemisphere although some dispersed and reached South America, Africa and Southeast Asia. Each species had to cope with ecological change&s that affected interspecific competition or the availability of food. Apparently the black bear was sufficiently adapted to have survived largely unchanged from what it was like a million years ago.& Numerous species went extinct, leaving only the 8 still present today. Some understanding of the evolutionary pressures that the modern bears have evolved through may help us to understand their be&havioral ecology. During the Pleistocene, bears at higher latitudes grew large and ecologically plastic while those closer to the equator remained small and became ecological specialists, as predSCs L\&icted by Geist's (1987) dispersal theory. Adaptations of the teeth of ancestral bear species allowed them to be both herbivores and carnivores. This allowed them to develop large size and broad ecol&ogical plasticity. Large body size enabled bears to conserve heat, capture large prey, defend carrion, travel great distances, and, as vegetation increased in the diet, to survive on qualitatively po& orer food. Quantity and quality of available food and the degree of sexual dimorphism influenced the size of the home range and the evolution of social behavior in each species. Bears show a gre& at deal of individual variation in behavior and may exploit different subniches as a result of learned behavior. Slight differences in phenotype may also influence exploitation of subniches. Recent l& iterature indicates that some terrestrial bear species are more active predators than previously thought and some evidence suggest a degree of scaling between the size of bears and the size of their p& rey. Social signalling appears to have been influenced by life in forest habitats but is not well understood. We give a preliminary interpretation of the social organization of the present day bears & through the interactive framework of proximate ecological pressures, phylogenetic history, and learning. There are likely few populations of bears anywhere in the world whose behavior has not bee&n significantly influenced by man. This may confound our understanding of their behavior and ecology. Remaining populations of bears may not be able to adapt successfully to the combined effects of &human predation, disappearing habitat, and climatic change. Z x Bz'K~'KZ x Bz'K~'Kp Z x Bz'K~'K70ON~ Td' mA mAQGStringham, Stephen F.7Roles of adult males in grizzly bear population biology7 Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19835140-151*Developing on my earlier wor'k (Stringham 1980) and that of McCullough (1981), influences of adult male abundance on rates of reproduction and subsequent attrition (mortality + net emigration) were evaluated for grizzly bears (Ur'sus arctos) by analysis of the data of Craighead et al. from Yellowstone National Park 1959-70. Years when adult males were most abundant were also those in which (1) the litters conceived were small'est when censused at median age 0.5 year postpartum, and (2) the cohorts born were comprised of fewest litters at that age. Cohorts produced during years of peak adult male abundance were not only sm'allest at age 0.5, but showed the highest rates of attrition to at least age 2.5 years. Apparently adult male abundance and/or some closely linked factor, perhaps availability of food, governed not o'nly abundance but quality of infants, which in turn governed survivorship and competitive ability for space and resources in Yellowstone National Park to age 2.5. That coincides generally with relati'onships between rates of reproduction and of attrition vs. abundances of adult males and of food observed by Rogers (1976, 1977) for black bear in Minnesota. McCullough (1981) reached some of these s'ame conclusions. o x Bz'K~'K o x Bz'K~'Ko x Bz'K~'K71( mA mAQHStringham, Stephen F.\Effects of climate, dump closure, and other factors on Yellowstone grizzly bear litter size.\ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1986633-39%UN~ w\l(*Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in Yellowstone National Park fed heavily on garbage at open-pit dumps from about 1895 until the dumps were closed in 1968-71. Concurrent with dump closure, mean cu(b litter size declined 17%. Almost 20% of the decline was associated with coincidental worsening of the climate and nearly 80% with closure. Impacts of closure may have been compounded by the simult(aneous increase in adult male abundance, to which litter size was negatively correlated.  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K( 72) mA mAQMMiller, Sterling D.0Population management of bears in North America.0 Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908357-373*Population management for black bears) (Ursus americanus), brown-grizzly bears (U. arctos) and polar bears (U. maritimus) in North America is reviewed. In different areas bear populations are managed to achieve goals of population contro)l, conservation or sustained yield. Most North American bears are managed for sustained yields and this topic is emphasized. The consequence of error in population management is high as bears reprod)uce slowly and reduced populations will require many years to recover. Simulation results where reproductive rates were generous, natural mortality rates were low, and harvests were 75% of maximum su)stainable rates indicated that populations reduced by half will require >40 years to recover for brown (grizzly) bears and >17 years for black bears. Under optimal conditions for reproduction, natura)l mortality, and with males twice as vulnerable as females, maximal sustainable hunting mortality was estimated as 5.7% of total population for grizzly bears and 14.2% for black bears. In recent decas3c~ dt)des, all 3 species have obtained the status of game animals in most jurisdictions and management for control objectives is increasingly uncommon. Management for conservation requires primary emphasis) on habitat protection and on minimizing mortalities from any source. Managers of hunted bear populations use information from hunters, from sex and age composition of killed bears, from research pro)grams, and from computer simulation studies. Non-critical uses of data from any of these sources may lead to management error. Data on age-at-harvest is especially prone to misinterpretation. Techni) ques used to limit harvest by managers of hunted bear populations are reviewed. The primary constraints facing bear population management derive from inadequate habitat protection, political pressure) s, technological limitations of available population management techniques, and inadequate financial support for management. ' x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K)  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K4 x Bz'K~'K77) * mA mAQi8Miller, Sterling D.//Becker, Earl F.//Ballard, Warren B.8\Black and brown bear density estimates using modified capture-recapture techniques in Alaska\ Int. Conf. Bear Res. a*nd Manage. 1987723-35*rPopulation density estimates were obtained for sympatric black bear (Ursus americanus) and brown bear (Ursus arctos) populations inhabiting a search area of 1*,325 km in south-central Alaska. Standard capture-recapture population estimation techniques were modified to correct for lack of geograhic closure based on daily locations of radio-marked animals ohN~ 'l|*ver a 7-day period. Calculated density estimates were based on available habitat in the search area (1,317 km for brown bears and 531 km for black bears). Calculated density was 2.79 brown bears/1*00 km (2.52-3.30 bears/100 km) and 8.97 black bears/100 km (7.74-10.21 km). Calculated 95% confidence intervals were +- 13.7% of the estimate for black bears and -9.8% to +18.5% of the estimate f*or brown bears. Probabilities of capture based on calculated sightability indices were not equal in some instances, so confidence intervals should be interpreted cautiously. Increasing the numbe*r of marked bears during the study period resulted in altered brown bears estimates and smaller confidence intervals, but because closure was a relatively good assumption for black bears in our study *area, had little effect on black bear estimates or confidence intervals. When telemetry data were used to correct input values for lack of geographic closure, the Schnabel estimator and the mean of 7* separate daily estimates yielded estimates close to our results. We recommend the technique for additional testing as a method to objectively compare bear densities between different areas or be* tween different times. These procedures may also be appropriate for use with other species.E: x Bz'K~'K: x Bz'K~'K: x Bz'K~'* ]K : x Bz'K~'K: x Bz'K~'K105+ mA mAQ*Schwartz, Charles C.//Franzmann, Albert W.*@Effects of tree crushing on black bear predation on moose calves@ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1983540-44*o+Mortality of young moose calves (Alces alces gigas) was evaluated on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, during spring and early summer 1977 and 1978. Studies were conducted both inside and outside of a 461#N~ t+-ha browse-rehabilitated area (Willow Lake) where standing vegetation had been crushed with LeTourneau tree crushers in winter 1974-75. Uncrushed areas (control) were regrowth of vegetation that was +burned by forest fire in 1947. Moose calves were radio-collared with mortality-sensor transmitters soon after birth. Black bear (Ursus americanus) predation accounted for 40-42% of the calf mortalit+y in control areas (6 of 15 calves collared in 1977 and 10 of 24 in 1978); no calves (of 8 collared in 1978) were killed by black bears within the rehabilitated areas. Movements of 23 radio-collared b+lack bears were also monitored during 1978 and 1979. Radio-collard bears, including 15 whose home ranges bordered or included rehabilitated areas, either did not utilize or avoided crushed sections. + Results of our studies indicated that neonatal mortality of moose calves was significantly reduced within browse-rehabilitated areas. ! x Bz'K~'K x Bz+'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'KL x Bz'K~'K164, mA mAQvMcLaughlin, Craig R.//Matula, George J. Jr.//Cross, Randall A.//Halteman, William H.//Caron, Mark A.//Morris, Karen I.vPPrecision and accuracy of estimating age of Maine black b,ears by cementum annuliP Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908415-419*2We investigated the precision and accuracy of age estimation by cementum annuli counts for Maine black bea,rs (Ursus americanus). Precision of age estimation was assessed by: 1) a repeated measures analysis of variance design to evaluate effects of reader, reader experience, bear sex, bear age class, and N~N~ |,trial; and 2) pair-wise comparisons of estimated years of birth (YOB) from series of premolars removed from bears over periods ranging from 2 days to 12 years. Age estimation accuracy was assessed th,rough pair-wise comparisons of cementum-assigned YOB to known YOB for known-age bears. Experienced readers assigned significantly (P = 0.0001) lower age estimates than inexperienced readers; greater, differences in age estimates occurred in old bears. Least variation in age estimates occurred in experienced readers' estimates for young bears (SD = 1.08 yr). Experienced readers estimated age mor,e precisely over 3 trials than inexperienced readers (P = 0.0051). YOB estimates from multiple teeth removed from individual bears showed decreasing agreement with increasing time between tooth remov,al (P = 0.002), and decreasing agreement with increasing age of bears (P < 0.001). Teeth removed later in life yielded later YOB estimates than teeth removed earlier. Cementum age estimates are accu,rate for bears _ 6 years of age, but may underestimate age in older bears. Managers using cementum age estimation should recognize the technique's limitations in precision and accuracy, and minimize , changes in personnel and methodology to reduce variation in estimates over time.ny x Bz'K~'Ky x Bz'K~'Ky x Bz'K~'K1, 97- mA mAQ!Gunther, Kerry A.//Renkin, Roy A.!RGrizzly bear predation on elk calves and other fauna of Yellowstone National Park.R Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908329--334) Keay notes: Single bears accounted for 80% of the observed predatory attempts on cow/calf groups. Breeding pairs, subadult pairs, females with cubs, and females with yearlings were also obkN~ -served chasing elk calves. Grizzly bears successfully took calves in 38% of the hunts that involved cow/calf groups >25 elk and in only 14% of the hunts that involved groups of _25. In May and early- June when newborn calves were extremely immobile, bears were observed locating newborn calves, apparently by scent, in calving/bedding areas. Adult elk retreated as bears approached these areas. Be-ars then moved through the sagebrush in a zigzag pattern, occasionally rising onto their hind legs. Calves that had remained bedded and were detected by bears were killed. These hunts ranged in time- from 5 seconds to 71 minutes (x=32.2 min 9.6 SE) and covered distances from 5 to 1,625 m (x=935 m 211 SE). The most common hunting techniques observed (59 of 70 hunts, 18 successes) was for a bear-(s) to approach cow/calf groups at a loping pace while in the open, apparently not using vegetation or topography for cover. Elk were aware of the bear's presence, and reacted by bunching into tight -groups while intently watching the bear. After the initial approach, the bear(s) made a series of charges that tended to separate confused calves from the group. The chase then concentrated on these- calves. Calves were often caught when bears cut to the inside of calves changing direction in an effort to rejoin the herd. Once within reach bears used their forelegs to grasp and pull down runnin- g calves by the rump. This type of hunt ranged in time from 5 seconds to 58 minutes (x=8.7 min 2.0 SE) and covered distances from 27 to 4,812 m (x=818 149 SE). Bears were observed killing more tha- n 1 calf on 2 occasions. The third style of hunting observed (2 of 70, both successful) involved the use of cover. Bears used tree cover to approach elk grazing within 50 m of the forest edge. Each^N~ - of these hunts lasted less than 20 seconds and covered less than 137 m. In each incident elk suddenly became alert and closely monitored the forest edge before a bear rushed from the trees and initi- ated chase. Due to the high efficiency of this type of hunt, it may occur more frequently than observed. Bears spent from 9 to 76 minutes (x=40 min 4 SE) feeding on calves immediatedly following th- e kill. Bears returned to 6 of 26 calf kills for a second feeding period, which ranged from 4 to 10 minutes (x=7 min 1 SE). Bears may have returned at night to feed on diurnal kills. Other scaveng-ers feed on elk calf remains. Ten hunts of adult elk were observed (8 unsuccessful, 2 unknown), May through July. No attempts at predation on adult elk by grizzly bears were observed in August or Se-ptember. These hunts ranged in time from 5 seconds to 1 minute (x=0.2 min 0.09 SE) and covered distances from 27 to 402 m (x=107 35 SE). Grizzly bears were observed unsuccessfully chasing ducks, g-eese, and sandhill cranes. *;Success rate, frequency, chronology, and techniques of grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) predation on elk calves (Cervus elaphus) were determined from visual obse-rvations in the Pelican Valley area of Yellowstone National Park, 1984-88. Seventy hunts directed toward elk groups containing calves were recorded, 26 of which were successful. Twenty one, 13 and 4- percent of all grizzly bear sightings in May, June, and July, respectively, involved hunts toward cow/calf groups. Success was significantly correlated with the number of attempts and time of year. - Grizzly bears were successful in killing calves in 71%, 42%, and 7% of the observed hunts in May, June, and July, respectively. Grizzly bears used 3 different techniques to hunt elk calves. Attempt^N~ -ed predation on adult elk and other fauna was also observed.E x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x B-=z'K~'K x Bz'K~'K222. mA mAQFrench, S. P.//French M. G.bPredatory behavior of grizzly bears feeding on elk calves in Yellowstone National Park, 1986-1988.b Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 1990.8335-341*Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) were observed preying on elk calves (Cervus elaphus) on 60 occasions in Yellowstone National Park, with 29 confirmed kills. Some bears wer.e deliberate predators and effectively preyed on elk calves for short periods each spring, killing up to 1 calf daily. Primary hunting techniques were searching and chasing although some bears used a. variety of techniques during a single hunt. They hunted both day and night and preyed on calves in the open and in the woods. Excess killing occurred when circumstances permitted. One bear caught 5. calves in a 15-minute interval. Elk used a variety of antipredator defenses and occasionally attacked predacious bears. The current level of this feeding behavior appears to be greater than previou.sly reported. This is probably related to the increased availability of calves providing a greater opportunity for learning, and the adaptation of a more predatory behavior by some grizzly bears in Y.ellowstone.  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K'  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K.I,8grizzly bears/predation/behavior/Yellowstone/elk/Wyoming8223$3c# / mA mAQMealy, Stephen PatrickOThe natural food habits of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park, 1973-74.O Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19804281-292* The/ natural food habits of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis Ord) in Yellowstone National Park were investigated in 1973-74 to identify the grizzly's energy sources and trophic level(s), nutrient us/e, and distribution. Food consumption was determined by scat analysis and field observations. Food quality and digestibility were estimated by chemical analysis. Grizzlies were distributed in 3 dis/tinctive feeding economies: valley/plateau, a grass/rodent economy where grizzlies were intensive diggers; mountain, primarily a grass/springbeauty/root economy where grizzlies were casual diggers; an/d lake, primarily a fish/grass economy where grizzlies were fishers. The economies occurred in areas with fertile soils; distribution of bears within each was related to the occurrence of succulent p/lants. The feeding cycle in the valley/plateau and mountain economies followed plant phenology. Grizzlies fed primarily on meat before green-up and on succulent herbs afterwards; meat, corms, berrie/s, and nuts became important during the postgrowing season. Succulent grasses and sedges with an importance value percentage of 78.5 were the most important food items consumed. Protein from animal /tissue was more digestible than protein from plant tissue. Storage fats were more digestible than structural fats. Food energy and digestibility were directly related. Five principle nutrient mater/ials (listed with their percentage digestibilities) contributed to total energy intake: protein from succulent herbs, 42.8; protein and fat from animal material, 78.1; fat and protein from pine nuts, ^N~ / 73.6; starch, 78.8; and sugar from berries and fruits, digestibility undetermined. Protein from succulent herbs, with a nutritive value percentage of 77.3, was the grizzlies' primary energy source. / Because succulent, preflowering herbs had higher protein levels than dry, mature herbs, grizzly use of succulent herbs guaranteed them the highest source of herbaceous protein. Low protein digestibli/ ty of succulent herbs was compensated for by high intake. Grizzlies were digestively flexible and maximized use of protein from plant and animal sources. They were adapted to the most constant and a/ bundant sources of protein: succulent herbs and animal material from open, fertile grasslands. Competition among grizzlies for animal food during the pregrowing season may be regulatory for the griz/ zly population. The grizzly population level can be partially accounted for by the grizzlies' status as secondary consumers during pregreen-up periods and primary consumers during the growing and pos/tgrowing seasons. The essential evnvironmental requirement was the availability of fertile grasslands and herblands interspersed with cover and capable of maintaining artiodactyls, rodents, and abunda/nt nutritious herbs as sources of food. *  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'Kn  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'KA/  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'KW  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K2280 mA mAQWang, Y.3The current status of Formosan black bear in Taiwan3 Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 199081-4*8Due to recently increasing game expoitation and hVN~ @0abitat fragmentation, the existence of Formosan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus formosanus) was thought to be endangered. To assess the current status of this species, aboriginal hunters, forestry0 workers and game store owners were interviewed, and 6 field surveys were also conducted. The results showed that this species was distributed mostly in mountains where the elevation is higher than 10,500 m; whereas in winter it could be seen in low elevation from 500 to 1,000 m. From 1985-88, 32-60 bears were sighted by the forestry workers in 22 locations. Most bears were found in Lala Mountai0n Reserve, Yushan National Park and Snow Mountain Area. In addition, from our surveys, some bears were found in Tawu Mountain Reserve. At present, this species can fetch a price between $727 US 0and $7,274 US (x= $2,713 US, N=13) in the local market. This price is approximately 1/2 the annual income of an aboriginal hunter. Besides, over half the aboriginal hunters (N=97) were willing to catc0h the animal regardless of its fierceness. This species is widely favored by game store owners; about 91 bears were sold in game stores between 1985-1988. A decreasing bear population was report0ed by most of the game store owners, aboriginal hunters and forestry workers, as a result of unlimited hunting. To cope with the current crisis, the Council of Agriculture legally declared in January 01989 that the Formosan black bear is a threatened and protected species and a reserve to protect the Formosan black bear is now being planned. m x Bz'K~'K! 0 Dx Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K2381 mA mAQStrickland, M. Dale5Grizzly bear recovery in the contiguous United States5 Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 199085-9*The agencies responsible for the manN~ 1agement of the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) have formed an interagency organization called the Interagency Grizzly Bear Committee (IGBC). The Committee has developed guidelines for the mana1gement of bears and bear habitat that are being applied in 4 of the 5 ecosystems where populations of bears still exist in the contigous 48 states. The Committee, through its members, has also endors1ed and often funded research on habitat and grizzly bear populations. The Committee currently has a task force assisting the U.S. Forest Service in their development of a cumulative effects model (CE1M) that will use existing data on habitat and bears to evaluate the addititive as well as individual effects of various activities on bears. Research is needed to validate CEM components. Additonal r1esearch is needed on social attitudes toward the grizzly bear, aversive conditioning, physiological effects of handling bears and population genetics. Some small populations may need periodic injecti1on of new genetic material. A project evaluating population augmentation as a possible management tool to increase genetic diversity and population size is planned in the near future. The Northern C1ontinental Divide and Yellowstone populations appear secure and the former appears to have reached a recovered level. It is important that the delisting process proceed in this population to confirm 1recovery, fulfill commitments to the public and assess our ability to manage grizzly bears without the protection of the Endangered Species Act. It is also important to focus more attention on areas 1 where the bear is less secure. While past recovery efforts have concentrated on areas in the United States, it may be impossible to maintain a viable population in some border areas without including^N~ #1 the bears and bear habitat provided by neighboring Canadian provinces. To aid in this cooperation, the IGBC recently was expanded to include British Columbia and Alberta.A x Bz'1 aK~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K2392 mA mAQ|$McLean, Peter K.//Pelton, Michael R.$QSome demographic comparasions of wild and panhandler bears in the Smoky MountainsQ !Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. !199082105-112*Body measurements, sex, weight, age, and reproductive condition were collected from 1,210 captures of wild and 492 captures of pandhandler black bears (Ursus americanus) trapped in the S2moky Mountains (SM) from 1968 to 1988. Gender was associated with the bear's status (i.e., panhandler/wild) (panhandler: 60% male, wild: 54% male, P=0.056). Wild male bears were significantly older 2than panhandler bears (3.9 vs 2.9 yr, P=0.0001); wild female bears were older than pandhandler females (4.9 vs 3.7 yr, P= 0.004). Male and female panhandlers were significantly heavier than their wil2d counterparts (P < 0.05), and panhandler bears grew faster than wild bears. The number of lactating females was significantly associated with status (P < 0.001); 56% of the panhandler and only 33% o2f the wild females were lactating. Panhandlers were more fertile and larger than wild bears likely reflecting the panhandlers better access to and use of high-energy, human foods particulary duri2ng years of natural food shortage. Small amounts of these foods, the availability of which varies with panhandler bear manangement, appear to make differences in body size. Dispersal and the large h2ome range size of the males and subadults probably explain the propensity of these bears to become panhandlers. The above findings as well as differences in demographic characteristics among wild bea'WG Z2rs within the Smoky Mountains are further discussed as they relate to the nutritional qualities of the environment. S x Bz'K~'KS x Bz'K~'K72 *S x Bz'K~'K3803 mA mAQMiller, Stirling D.lDenning ecology of brown bears in southcentral Alaska and comparisons with a sympatric black bear populationl !Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. !199038279-287*TBrown bears (Ursus arctos) in southcentral Alaska spent an average of 201 days in winter dens. Males spent the least time in dens (mean= 189 days) and parturient females the m3ost (mean= 217 days). Females with cubs of the year and females pregnant at den entry spent the least amount of time out of dens (158 and 164 days, respectively) and males the most (180 days). No di3fference in den entrance date based on sex or reproductive status was observed. Mean den entrance date was 14 October. Entrance date differed between years, early entrance appeared associated with be3rry crop failures and colder weather. Mean date of exit from dens was earliest for males (23 April) and latest for females with newborn cubs (15 May). Exit dates also varied between years with late 3exits correlated with colder weather and persistent snow cover. Dens used by brown bears in this area were excavated, no unmodified natural cavities were used. These dens collapsed during spring3 and summer precluding reuse. Some individuals dug dens in the same general area from year to year; mean distance between den sites used in successive years by all bears was 6.1 km. Characteristics 3of den sites and sizes of dens are described. Typically dens were dug at higher elevations and on the periphery of home ranges used during summer and fall. Upon exit, most bears moved to lower eleva P 3tions but females with newborn cubs tended to remain in the vicinity of den sites. Available data suggest this behavior reduces loss of newborn cubs to predation by other bears. Compared to a sy3 mpatric population of black bears (Ursus americanus), brown bears denned at higher elevations, spent less time in dens, and entered dens earlier. Den exit dates were similar. Dimensions of brown bea3 r dens were not significantly larger than excavated black bear dens and mean date of emergence from dens was about the same. A proposed hydroelectric project in this study area would likely have redu3 ced black bear populations through impacts on black bear denning habitat. The project would have had only indirect impacts on brown bear denning habitats.   x Bz'K~'K 3  x Bz'K~'K2  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K4004 mA mAQ'Reinhart, Daniel P.// Mattson, David J.'IBear use of cutthroat trout spawning streams in Yellowstone National ParkI !Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. !1990 8343-4350*XGrizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and black bears (Ursus americanus) prey on spawning cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki, formerly known as Salmo clarki) in tributary streams of Yellowstone Lak4e. These tributary streams were surveyed from 1985 to 1987 to determine the presence and level of trout spawning activity and bear use. Indices were developed to enumerate spawner density and levels4 of bear use. Of 124 known tributaries of Yellowstone Lake, 48% had a spawning run. Of these spawning streams, 93% had associated bear activity, and 61% had associated evidence of bear fishing. Bea3cN~ 94rs were apparently using more spawning streams and fish compared to 10 years earlier. Bear use of cutthroat trout spawning streams appeared to be largely a positive function of volumetric spawner den4sity. We hypothesize that abundance and quality of stream-side vegetation relative to other foraging options influenced bear use. Intra- and interspecific avoidance among bears was suggested by patt4erns of spawning stream use. Less bear use of spawning streams than expected occurred within 1 km of park developments.  < x Bz'K~'K < x Bz'K~'K4< x Bz'K~'K< x Bz'K~'K$< x Bz'K~'K< x Bz'K~'K< x Bz'K~'K <4K x Bz'K~'K< x Bz'K~'K4105 mA mAQCalvert, Wendy// Stirling, Ian_Interactions between polar bears and overwintering walruses in the central Canadian High Arctic_ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 199058351-356*There are few records of predation by polar bears (Ursus maritimus) on walrus (Odobenus rosmarus), although their distributions overlap extensively. During the late winter and ea5rly spring from 1981 to 1989, we recorded interactions between polar bears and walrus in the central Canadian High Arctic, where walrus movements are severely restricted in the winter by limited areas5 of open water for breathing and haulout holes. Predatory behavior of bears and anti-predator behavior of walruses were observed. We found evidence that polar bears made wounding but non-fatal attac5ks on 3 walruses, killed 3 walruses, and probably killed 4 others. One walrus was frozen out of its breathing hole and vulnerable to predation. Although the vulnerability of walrus to polar bear preAqN~ ]5dation would vary with habitats and seasons, it is clear that polar bears are important predators of walruses in the central Canadian High Arctic in late winter-early spring. 3 x5 Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K  x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K\ x Bz'K~'K4206 mA mAQSmith, Bernard L.8Sex weighted point system regulates grizzly bear harvest8 !Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. !19908375-383*A system that provides outfitt6ers guiding non-resident hunters with a 3:1 incentive to take male over female grizzly bears was tested in 20 outfitting areas in the Yukon Territory between 1985 and 1988. This system replaced annua6l quotas, 1980-1984, that had been critized as being too small, too inflexible, and lacking incentive for male-selective or dispensed harvest. This new system was implemented in each outfitting area.6 Sex was confirmed through compulsory inspection of "male" pelts with attached bacula. Most other regulations were unchanged. Most of the 20 outfitters modified hunting operations and behaviour6s. The behaviour changes most likely to increase male harvest were increased upland hunting, spring hunting, small plane use and hunting over "gutpiles". Generally, the kill increased, sex ratios cha6nged little, the proportion of older bears taken increased, and the head size of bears taken increased. Future increases in male harvest are expected, but will require training of hunting guides. Ou6tfitters ranked flexibility, opportunity to increase harvest if male proportions increased, frank individual discussions with biologists, increased potential harvest, and new population estimates, as 6=the most beneficial attributes of this program. 430Hx8h 7 mA mAQKolenosky, George B.;Reproductive biology of black bears in east-central Ontario; !Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. !19908385-392*The reproductive charact7eristics of 241 female black bears (Ursus americanus) _3-years-old were examined in east-central Ontario from 1969-1980. During the 12-year period, the percentage of adult females reproducing each ye7ar ranged from 13-58 and averaged 38. Litter sizes ranged from 1 to 4 and averaged 1.9 from summer captures and 2.5 from den examinations. Size of litters was positively correlated with both age of 7the female (P<0.009) and weight the previous fall (P<0.001) (N=28). Fall weights of 20 adult females that produced cubs the following year averaged 97 kg compared to an average of 70 kg for 14 female7s that did not produce cubs. Weights of 16 of 20 of the former exceeded 80 kg whereas only 4 of 14 of the latter group were that heavy. Females produced their first litters at ages 5-8; the mean age7 of first reproduction was 6. Age-specific natality rates for females aged 5-18 ranged from 0.36 to 1.50. Females aged 5-7 produced an average of 0.6 cubs/year and females aged 8-18 an average of 1.72 (P<0.01). Based on 4-8 consecutive years of breeding history, 14 of 15 bears had a 2-year breeding cycle. The male-to-female ratio of cubs produced was 113:100 (N=96). Of the 68 different adult f7emales checked during the study, 59% produced at least one litter of cubs. However 17 of the 68 bears produced 66% of all litters. Characteristics common to the most productive females were longevit7y, large size, possession of a home range and low vulnerability to hunters. Because a successful female had a high probability of being successful again, the protection of females with young would be^N~ 7 a desired management strategy in heavily hunted populations or populations occupying marginal or fragmented patches of habitat. < x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K7 :~'K x Bz'K~'K4408 mA mAQ6Picton, Harold D.//Palmisciano, Daniel//Nelson, Gerald6OFluctuating asymmetry and testing isolation of Montana grizzly bear populationsO !Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. !819908421-424*Fluctuating asymmetry of adult skulls was used to test the genetic isolation of the Yellowstone grizzly population from its nearest neighbor. An overall summary statisti8c was used in addition to 16 other parameters. Tests found the males of the Yellowstone population to be more variable than those of the North Continental Divide Ecosystem. Evidence for precipitation8 effects is also included. This test tends to support the existing management hypothesis that the Yellowstone population is isolated. 4609 mA mAQStringham, Stephen F.JBlack bear reproductive rate relative to body weight in hunted populationsJ Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908425-432*+Litter si9ze, natality (cubs per adult female per year), and maturation rate are positively related to body weights of adult males and females. This is shown by regressions of reproductive parameters on weight,9 using mean values from each of 7 hunted populations. Maturation rates to weaning and adulthood are, respectively, proportional to the inverses of interbirth interval and age at first whelping, gener9ation length. Assuming that weight is an index of nutritional status, these findings for black bear (Ursus americanus) are consistent with the typical mammalian dependence of reproductive rate on nutrj*  9itional status. Because body weights are commonly obtained by game managers, they may be a quick, inexpensive basis for estimating reproductive rate for populations where reproductive data are lackin9g. x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K x Bz'K~'K470: mA mAQStringham, Stephen F.4Grizzly bear reproductive rate relative to body size4 Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 19908433-443*Mean adult body sizes (BS) and :reproductive parameters were compared across 12 populations of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos). BS was assessed in terms of mean adult body weight (BW) and skull length (SL). BWs