Table of Contents Ursus 10

Arthur, S.M., Garner, G.W., and Olson, T.L. 1995. Identifying And Mitigating Errors In Satellite Telemetry Of Polar Bears. Ursus, 10, 413-419. ->

Barnes, Jr.V.G. and Smith, R.B. 1995. Estimates Of Brown Bear Abundance On Kodiak Island, Alaska. Ursus, 10, 1-9. ->

Bath, A.J. 1995. The Role Of Human Dimensions In Wildlife Resource Research In Wildlife Management. Ursus, 10, 349-355. ->

Belikov, S.E. and Boltunov, A.N. 1995. Problems With Conservation And Sustainable Use Of Polar Bears In The Russian Arctic. Ursus, 10, 119-127. ->

Belikov, S.E., Garner, G.W., Wiig, O., Boltunov, A.N., and Gorbunov, Y.A. 1995. Polar Bears Of The Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago Of The Russian Arctic. Ursus, 10, 33-40. ->

Black, L.T. 1995. Bear In Human Imagination And In Ritual. Ursus, 10, 343-347. ->

Boone, W.R., Catlin, J.C., Casey, K.J., Boone, E.T., Dye, P.S., Schuett, R.J., Rosenberg, J.0., Tsubota, T., and Bahr, J.M. 1995. Bears As Induced Ovulators-A Preliminary Study. Ursus, 10, 503-505. ->

Calvert, W. and Ramsay, M.A. 1995. Evaluation Of Age Determination Of Polar Bears By Counts Of Cementum Growth Layer Groups. Ursus, 10, 449-453. ->

Case, R.L. and Buckland, L. 1995. Reproductive Characteristics Of Grizzly Bears In The Kugluktuk Area, Northwest Territories, Canada. Ursus, 10, 41-47. ->

Chestin, I.E. 1995. Trade In Brown Bear Gall Bladders In Russia. Ursus, 10, 161-166. ->

Chi, D.K., Chester, D., and Gilbert, B.K. 1995. Effects Of Capture Procedures On Black Bear Activity At An Alaskan Salmon Stream. Ursus, 10, 563-569. ->

Clark, D.A. and Stirling, I. 1995. Habitat Preferences Of Polar Bears In The Hudson Bay Lowlands During Late Summer And Fall. Ursus, 10, 243-250. ->

Clark, J.D., Hayes, S.R., and Pledger, J.M. 1995. A Female Black Bear Denning Habitat Model Using A Geographic Information System. Ursus, 10, 181-185. ->

Consolo Murphy, S. and Kaeding, B. 1995. Fishing Bridge: 25 Years Of Controversy Regarding Grizzly Bear Management In Yellowstone National Park. Ursus, 10, 385-393.->

Craighead, D.J. 1995. An Integrated Satellite Technique To Evaluate Grizzly Bear Habitat Use. Ursus, 10, 187-201. ->

Craighead, F.L., Reynolds, H.V., Strobeck, C., and Vyse, E.R. 1995. Use Of Microsatellite Dna Analyses To Infer Breeding Behavior And Demographic Processes In An Arctic Grizzly Bear Population. Ursus, 10, 323-327. ->

Craighead, J.J. 1995. Status Of The Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Population: Has It Recovered, Should It Be Delisted? Ursus, 10, 597-602. ->

Elgmork, K. and Unander, S. 1995. Brown Bear Use Of Ant Mounds In Scandinavia. Ursus, 10, 269-274. ->

Fischer, H. and Roy, M. 1995. New Approaches To Citizen Participation In Endangered Species Management: Recovery In The Bitterroot Ecosystem. Ursus, 10, 603-606. ->

Garshelis, D.L. and Mclaughlin, C.R. 1995. Review And Evaluation Of Breakaway Devices For Bear Radiocollars. Ursus, 10, 459-465. ->

Garshelis, D.L., Noyce, K.V., and Coy, P.L. 1995. Calculating Average Age Of First Reproduction Free Of The Biases Prevalent In Bear Studies. Ursus, 10, 437-447. ->

Gautestad, A.0., Mysterud, I., and Pelton, M.R. 1995. Complex Movement And Scale-Free Habitat Use: Testing The Multi-Scaled Home-Range Model On Black Bear Telemetry Data. Ursus, 10, 219-234. ->

Gibeau, M.L. 1995. Grizzly Bear Habitat Effectiveness Model For Banff, Yoho, And Kootenay National Parks, Canada. Ursus, 10, 235-241. ->

Gniadek, S.J. and Kendall, K.C. 1995. A Summary Of Bear Management In Glacier National Park, Montana, 1960-1994. Ursus, 10, 155-159. ->

Groff, C., Caliari, A., Dorigatti, E., and Gozzi, A. 1995. Selection Of Denning Caves By Brown Bears In Trentino, Italy. Ursus, 10, 275-279. ->

Gula, R., Frackowiak, W., and Perzanowski, K. 1995. Current Status And Conservation Needs Of Brown Bears In The Polish Carpathians . Ursus, 10, 81-86. ->

Gunther, K.A. and Hoekstra, H.E. 1995. Bear-Inflicted Human Injuries In Yellowstone National Park, 1970-1994. Ursus, 10, 377-384. ->

Gutleb, B. 1995. The Brown Bear In Carinthia: History And Status In Southern Austria. Ursus, 10, 75-79. ->

Hellgren, E.C. 1995. Physiology Of Hibernation In Bears. Ursus, 10, 467-477. ->

Herrero, S. and Higgins, A. 1995. Field Use Of Capsicum Spray As A Bear Deterrent
. Ursus, 10, 533-537. ->

Huber, D., Kusak, J., and Frkovic, A. 1995. Traffic Kills Of Brown Bears In Gorski Kotar, Croatia. Ursus, 10, 167-171. ->

Jones, M.D., Warburton, G.S., and Pelton, M.R. 1995. Models For Predicting Occupied Black Bear Habitat In Coastal North Carolina. Ursus, 10, 203-207. ->

Kasbohm, J.W., Vaughan, M.R., and Kraus, J.G. 1995. Black Bear Home Range Dynamics And Movement Patterns During A Gypsy Moth Infestation. Ursus, 10, 259-267. ->

Kasworm, W.F., Thier, T.J., and Servheen, C. 1995. Grizzly Bear Recovery Efforts In The Cabinet/Yaak Ecosystem. Ursus, 10, 147-153. ->

Koene, P. 1995. Adaptation Of Blind Brown Bears To A New Environment And Its Residents: Stereotypy And Play As Welfare Indicators. Ursus, 10, 579-587. ->

Kohn, M.H. and Knauer, F. 1995. Phylogeography Of Brown Bears In Europe And Excremental PCR The New Tool In The Genetic Analysis Of Animals In The Wild. Ursus, 10, 315-321. ->

Kontio, B.D., Garshelis, D.L., Birney, E.C., and Andersen, D.E. 1995. Resilience Of A Minnesota Black Bear Population To Heavy Hunting: Self-Sustaining Population Or Population Sink? Ursus, 10, 139-146. ->

Kusak, J. and Huber, D. 1995. Brown Bear Habitat Quality In Gorski Kotar Croatia. Ursus, 10, 281-291.->

Machutchon, A.G., Himmer, S., Davis, H., and Gallagher, M. 1995. Temporal And Spatial Activity Patterns Among Coastal Bear Populations. Ursus, 10, 539-546. ->

Mano, T. 1995. Harvest History Of Brown Bears In The Oshima Peninsula, Hokkaido, Japan. Ursus, 10, 173-180. ->

Matson, G.M. and Kerr, K.D. 1995. A Method For Dating Tetracycline Biomarkers In Black Bear Cementum. Ursus, 10, 455-458. ->

Mattson, D.J. 1995. Changes In Mortality Of Yellowstone's Grizzly Bears. Ursus, 10, 129-138. ->

Mattson, D.J. 1995. Diet And Morphology Of Extant And Recently Extinct Northern Bears. Ursus, 10, 479-496. ->

Mcdonald, Jr.J.E. and Fuller, T.K. 1995. Testing Assumptions In Bear Research: Using Statistical Power Analysis To Estimate Effects Of Den Type On Black Bear Cub Survival. Ursus, 10, 405-411. ->

Mclellan, B.N. 1995. Maintaining Viability Of Brown Bears Along The Southern Fringe Of Their Distribution . Ursus, 10, 607-611. ->

Milbury, P.E., Vaughan, M.R., Farley, S., Matula, Jr.G.J., Convertino, V.A., and Matson, W.R. 1995. A Comparative Bear Model For Immobility-Induced Osteopenia. Ursus, 10, 507-520. ->

Miller, D.A., Hallerman, E.M., Vaughan, M.R., and Kasboh, J.W. 1995. Genetic Variation In Black Bear Populations From Louisiana And Arkansas: Examining The Potential Influence Of Reintroductions From Minnesota. Ursus, 10, 335-341. ->

Miller, S.M., Miller, S.D., and Mccollum, D.W. 1995. Attitudes Toward And Relative Value Of Alaskan Brown And Black Bears To Resident Voters, Resident Hunters, And Nonresident Hunters. Ursus, 10, 357-376. ->

Murphy, K.M., Felzien, G.S., Hornocker, M.G., and Ruth, T.K. 1995. Encounter Competition Between Bears And Cougars: Some Ecological Implications. Ursus, 10, 55-60. ->

Noble, W.0. and Meslow, E.C. 1995. Spring Foraging And Forest Damage By Black Bears In The Central Coast Ranges Of Oregon. Ursus 10, 293-298). ->

Noyce, K.V. and Garshelis, D. 1995. Spring Weight Changes In Black Bears In Northcentral Minnesota: The Negative Foraging Period Revisited. Ursus, 10, 521-531. ->

O'Brien, S.L. and Lindzey, F.G. 1995. Aerial Sightability And Classification Of Grizzly Bears At Moth Aggregation Sites In The Absaroka Mountains, Wyoming. Ursus, 10, 427-435. ->

Obbard, M.E., Pond, B.A., and Perera, A. 1995. Preliminary Evaluation Of Gps Collars For Analysis Of Habitat Use And Activity Patterns Of Black Bears. Ursus, 10, 209-217. ->

Olson, T.L., Garner, G.W., and Arthur, S.M. 1995. Methodology For Maintaining Observer Independence In Aerial Strip Transect Surveys. Ursus, 10, 421-425. ->

Olson, T.L., Squibb, R.C., and Gilbert, B.K. 1995. Brown Bear Diurnal Activity And Human Use: A Comparison Of Two Salmon Streams. Ursus, 10, 547-555. ->

Ovsyanikovl , N. 1995. Den Use And Social Interactions Of Polar Bears During Spring In A Dense Denning Area On Herald Island, Russia. Ursus, 10, 251-258. ->

Paetkau, D. and Strobeck, C. 1995. Ecological Genetic Studies Of Bears Using Picrosatellite
Analysis. Ursus, 10, 299-306. ->

Pajetnov, V.S. and Pajetnov, S.V. 1995. Food Competition And Grouping Behavior Of Orphaned Brown Bear Cubs In Russia. Ursus, 10, 571-574. ->

Peek, J.M. 1995. Experiences With A Committee Of User Groups Examining Grizzly Bear Restoration In Idaho. Ursus, 10, 613-614. ->

Peyton, B., Yerena, E., Rumiz, D.I., Jorgenson, R., and Orejuela, J. 1995. Status Of Wild Andean Bears And Policies For Their Management. Ursus, 10, 87-100. ->

Revenko, I.A. 1995. Status Of Brown Bears In Kamchatka, Russian Far East. Ursus, 10, 11-16.
Scanlon, P.F., Vaughan, M.R., and Beal, W.E. 1995. Split Parturition In A Black Bear. Ursus, 10, 61-61. ->

Schirokauer, D.W. and Boyd, H.M. 1995. Bear-Human Conflict Management In Denali National Park And Preserve, 1982-94. Ursus, 10, 395-403. ->

Schoen, J.W. 1995. Introduction To A Panel Discussion: Recovery Of Threatened Grizzly Bear Populations In North America. Ursus, 10, 589 ->

Schrage, M.W. and Vaughan, M.R. 1995. Population Responses Of Black Bears Following Oak Mortality Induced By Gypsy Moths. Ursus, 10, 49-54. ->

Servheen, C. 1995. Conservation Of Small Bear Populations Through Strategic Planning. Ursus, 10, 67-73. ->

Servheen, C. 1995. The Grizzly Bear Recovery Program: Current Status And Future
Considerations. Ursus, 10, 591-596. ->

Suring, L.H., Barber, K.R., Schwartz, C.C., Bailey, T.N., Shuster, W.C., and Tetreau, M.D. 1995. Analysis Of Cumulative Effects On Brown Bears On The Kenai Peninsula, Southcentral Alaska. Ursus, 10, 107-117. ->

Swenson, J.E., Sandegren, F., Bjarvall, A., and Wabakken, P. 1995. Living With Success: Research Needs For An Expanding Brown Bear Population. Ursus, 10, 17-23. ->

Ternenti, M.A. and Garshelis, D.L. 1995. Male-Instigated Break-Up Of A Family Of Black Bears. Ursus , 10, 575-578. ->

Tumanov, I.L. 1995. Reproductive Characteristics Of Captive European Brown Bears And Growth Rates Of Their Cubs In Russia. Ursus, 10, 63-65. ->

Waits, L., Paetkau, D., Strobeck, C., and Ward, R.H. 1995. A Comparison Of Genetic Diversity In North American Brown Bears. Ursus, 10, 307-314. ->

White, Jr.D., Berardinelli, J.G., and Aune, K.E. 1995. Reproductive Characteristics Of The Male Grizzly Bear In The Continental United States. Ursus, 10, 497-501. ->

Wiig, O. 1995. Survival And Reproductive Rates For Polar Bears At Svalbard. Ursus, 10, 25-32. ->

Wilker, G.A. and Barnes, Jr.V.G. 1995. Responses Of Brown Bears To Human Activities At O'malley River, Kodiak Island, Alaska. Ursus, 10, 557-561. ->

Wooding, S. and Ward, R.H. 1995. Patterns Of Genetic Diversity In A Black Bear Population Indicate Recent Immigration. Ursus, 10, 329-333. ->

Yerena, E. 1995. Protected Areas For The Andean Bear In South America. Ursus, 10, 101-106. ->

International Conference on Bear Research and Management 10
(Bears - their Biology and Management)

Abstracts

ARTHUR, S.M., GARNER, G.W., & OLSON, T.L. 1998. IDENTIFYING AND MITIGATING ERRORS IN SATELLITE TELEMETRY OF POLAR BEARS. Ursus, 10, 413-419.

Abstract: Satellite radiotelemetry is a useful method of tracking movements of animals that travel long distances or inhabit remote areas. However, the logistical constraints that encourage the use of satellite telemetry also inhibit efforts to assess accuracy of the resulting data. To investigate effectiveness of methods that might be used to improve the reliability of these data, we compared 3 sets of criteria designed to select the most plausible locations of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) that were tracked using satellite radiotelemetry in the Bering, Chukchi, East Siberian, Laptev, and Kara seas during 1988-93. We also evaluated several indices of location accuracy. Our results suggested that, although indices could provide information useful in evaluating location accuracy, no index or set of criteria was sufficient to identify all the implausible locations. Thus, it was necessary to examine the data and make subjective decisions about which locations to accept or reject. However, by using a formal set of selection criteria, we simplified the task of evaluating locations and ensured that decisions were made consistently. This approach also enabled us to evaluate biases that may be introduced by the criteria used to identify location efforts. For our study, the best set of selection criteria comprised: (1) rejecting locations for which the distance to the nearest other point from the same day was >50 km; (2) determining the highest accuracy code (NLOC) for a particular day and rejecting locations from that day with lesser values; and (3) from the remaining locations for each day, selecting the location closest to the location chosen for the previous transmission period. Although our selection criteria seemed unlikely to bias studies of habitat use or geographic distribution, basing selection decisions on distances between points might bias studies of movement rates or distances. It is unlikely that any set of criteria will be best for all situations; to make efficient use of data and minimize bias, these rules must be tailored to specific study objectives.

BARNES, JR.V.G. & SMITH, R.B. 1998. ESTIMATES OF BROWN BEAR ABUNDANCE ON KODIAK ISLAND, ALASKA. Ursus, 10, 1-9.

Abstract: During 1987-94 we used capture-mark-resight (CMR) methodology and rates of observation (bears/hour and bears/100 km2) Of unmarked brown bears (Ursus arctos middendorffi) during intensive aerial surveys (IAS) to estimate abundance of brown bears on Kodiak Island and to establish a baseline for monitoring population trends. CMR estimates were obtained on 3 study areas; density ranged from 216-234 bears/1,000 km2 for independent animals and 292-342 bears/1,000 km2 including dependent offspring. Rates of observation during IAS ranged from 1.4-5.4 independent bears/hour and 2.9-18.0 independent bears/100 km2 . Density estimates for independent bears on each IAS area were obtained by dividing mean number of bears observed during replicate surveys by estimated sightability (based on CMR-derived sightability in areas with similar habitat). Brown bear abundance on 21 geographic units of Kodiak Island and 3 nearby islands was estimated by extrapolation from CMR and IAS data, using comparisons of habitat characteristics and sport harvest information. Population estimates for independent and total bears were 1,800 and 2,600. The CMR and IAS procedures offer alternative means, depending on management objective and available resources, of measuring population trend of brown bears on Kodiak Island.

BATH, A.J. 1998. THE ROLE OF HUMAN DIMENSIONS IN WILDLIFE RESOURCE RESEARCH IN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT. Ursus, 10, 349-355.

Abstract: The human dimension in wildlife resource (HDWR) management is increasingly recognized by wildlife managers as an important component to understand and to integrate into daily decision-making. The nature of human dimensions and HDWR research has changed from a traditional emphasis on hunters and big game species to economic issues. To aid bear (Ursidae) managers, I outline the types of questions which can be answered, integrate examples of research with large predators from around the world, and discuss public involvement in wildlife management. As human dimensions research remains a relatively unknown approach in wildlife
management, wildlife managers can benefit from an overview of the field. Especially for managers of large predators such as bears, which often elicit strong public emotions, management becomes as much a sociopolitical issue as a biological one.

BELIKOV, S.E. & BOLTUNOV, A.N. 1998. PROBLEMS WITH CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF POLAR BEARS IN THE RUSSIAN ARCTIC. Ursus, 10, 119-127.

Abstract: Three polar bear populations (Ursus maritimus) occur in the Russian Arctic: Spitsbergen-Novozemelskaya, Laptevskaya, and Chukchi Alaska. The status and local condition of each population differs and requires different conservation and management approaches. The Spitsbergen Novozemelskaya population in the early 1980s had approximately 3,000-6,700 animals. About 1,700-2,000 bears of this population inhabit the Svalbard, Norway, region and are considered by Norwegian specialists as a separate sub-population. No survey data are available to detect changes in population size, although Barents Sea resources were over-harvested during the 1980s. Because of these uncertainties, it has been recommended that this population be placed in the fourth category (undetermined status) in the Red Data Book of Animals of the Russian Federation (Eliseev 1983) when the next issue is published. This status allows use of the population for recreational viewing purposes and for capturing cubs for zoological gardens. The Frans-Josef Land Archipelago has been designated a federal refuge, which protects the polar bear population in the region. Additional protected territories and marine areas in the Novaya Zemlya region are planned and would provide additional protection for the Spitsbergen-Novozernelskaya polar bear population. The Laptevskaya population of approximately 1,000 bears has been stable for decades. The comparatively small size and low density of this population justifies retaining it in the third category (rare status) of the Red Data Book of Animals of the Russian Federation (Eliseev 1983), which provides greater protection than other designations. In the denning areas of this population, the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago and the Novosibirsk Islands, establishing natural protection territories has been recommended. Only recreational use (viewing) of this population is allowed. The Chukchi-Alaskan population numbers several thousand bears and is harvested only by Alaskan native people. A proposal is pending to move this population to the fifth category (restored or rehabilitated status) of the Red Data Book of Animals of the Russian Federation (Eliseev 1983). In Russia, hunting polar bears in this population for subsistence purposes by indigenous peoples is being considered. However, experts propose that legalized hunting be contingent upon elimination of the current illegal hunting that occurs in this region in Russia. For more effective protection of polar bears, it has been recommended that marine areas in the East-Siberian and Chukchi seas be added to the Wrangel Island State Nature Reserve and that an international protected marine area be established in the southern Chukchi Sea.

BELIKOV, S.E., GARNER, G.W., WIIG, O., BOLTUNOV, A.N., & GORBUNOV, Y.A. 1998. POLAR BEARS OF THE SEVERNAYA ZEMLYA ARCHIPELAGO OF THE RUSSIAN ARCTIC. Ursus, 10, 33-40.

Abstract: The Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago was visited by Russian explorers during 1930-32, and observations of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) were first recorded incidental to expedition members hunting polar bears for food and fur. A joint Russian, Norwegian, and U.S. research effort on polar bear ecology in the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago was initiated in 1991. A total of 11 bears were captured, including 5 adult females which were fitted with satellite collars. Two satellite collars failed soon after deployment ( 25 locations), but 3 units functioned for an extended period of time (>50 location). A majority of the movements were confined to the eastern Kara Sea, but I bear moved into the western Laptev Sea before returning to the eastern edge of the Kara Sea near Cape Cheluskin. One bear had a very restricted movement patteiii closely associated with the 2 northwestern islands in the Severnaya Zemlya group (Komsomolets and Pioner Islands). The combined locations for the 5 collared bears depict an overall range that is centered around the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago. Minimum estimates of distances traveled for 3 bears with >50 locations averaged 4,183 km. The daily rates of movement for the study period varied between bears and ranged between 6.4 and 14.7 km/day. The rate of movement during minimum sea ice cover was the highest (12.7 km/day) for 4 defined periods, while rates of movement for the other 3 periods were very similar (8.5-9.3 km/day). Polar bears in this region of Russia do not move long distances to maintain contact with the sea ice, in contrast to polar bears in the Chukchi Sea in eastern Russia which move over large areas to maintain contact with the sea ice throughout the year.

BLACK, L.T. 1998. BEAR IN HUMAN IMAGINATION AND IN RITUAL. Ursus, 10, 343-347.

Abstract. The place and significance of the bear image (related to Ursus spp.) in the worldview of
the peoples inhabiting the northern hemisphere, Eurasia and North America, has been long recognized. In the U.S., Paul Shepard and Barry Sanders recently examined (1985) the bear representation, primarily in myth and literature, from an historical and ecological perspective. In 1926, U.S. anthropologist A.I. Hallowell examined the role of bear ceremonialism cross-culturally. Unfortunately, he had little access to the work of Russian anthropologists who studied bear rituals in a great variety of cultural settings from Sakhalin to Lapland. Also, data on Ainu bear ceremonialism were relatively meager in Hollowell's time. Many new data have been accumulated both in Japan and in Russia by anthropologists since Hallowell published his seminal article. New data also have been collected from indigenous peoples of the North American forest belt. I examine the differential meanings ascribed to the bear in light of new data and with modem methods of analysis of symbolic systems.


BOONE, W.R., CATLIN, J.C., CASEY, K.J., BOONE, E.T., DYE, P.S., SCHUETT, R.J., ROSENBERG, J.0., TSUBOTA, T., & BAHR, J.M. 1998. BEARS AS INDUCED OVULATORS-A PRELIMINARY STUDY. Ursus, 10, 503-505.

Abstract: We visually verified corpora lutea and measured serum progesterone concentrations during the estrous cycle in 8 semi-captive black' bears (Ursus ameficanus) in South Dakota. Our data suggested that black bears ovulate after they mate, indicating that black bears are induced ovulators. These preliminary findings may aid scientists in their efforts to save endangered bear species through controlled breeding programs.


CALVERT, W. & RAMSAY, M.A. 1998. EVALUATION OF AGE DETERMINATION OF POLAR BEARS BY COUNTS OF CEMENTUM GROWTH LAYER GROUPS. Ursus, 10, 449-453.

Abstract: The ages of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) of known age from 2 to 18 years were
estimated through counts of cementum growth layer groups in 105 vestigial, first premolar teeth. Each tooth was read independently by both investigators. The reader with more experience achieved an accuracy of 75% and estimated 93% of the teeth to within 1 year of the correct age. The reader with less experience achieved 58% accuracy and estimated 85% to within 1 year. Accuracy was best in the middle age ranges (i.e., 7-15 years) which are the most critical from a demographic perspective. Our method of determining the age of polar bears represents an almost 2-fold increase in accuracy over methods reported previously. Although our method required more effort and time during processing than standard methods, the higher costs were small relative to the cost of obtaining the samples. Further improvements in accuracy may be possible through the use of standard body-size measurements to identify younger animals and through having the readers with the most experience review teeth that readers with less experience flag as difficult to read.


CASE, R.L. & BUCKLAND, L. 1998. REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRIZZLY BEARS IN THE KUGLUKTUK AREA, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, CANADA. Ursus, 10, 41-47.

Abstract: Reproduction and survival of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) were studied in the area southwest of Kugluktuk, Northwest Territories, between 1988 and 1995. Thirteen radiocollared female grizzly bears were monitored for up to 7 years in tundra habitat southwest of Kugluktuk. Adult female survival was high (98%); the only 2 adult female mortalities were from intraspecific predation. Mean litter size was 2.3 cubs <1 year old (n = 19), mean birth interval was 2.6 years (n = 8), and the annual natality rate was 0.87 cubs/adult female. Mean reproductive interval between successful litters was 3.3 years (n = 6). First-year cub survival was 81%, and second-year cub survival was 76-84%. Age at first parturition averaged 8.7 years (n = 6), which is later than in other northern grizzly bear populations. However, growth curves indicated that maturity was not delayed by nutrition. The estimated finite rate of population increase was 1.026. These results indicate that the Kugluktuk grizzly bear population can sustain a small harvest provided that females are protected.

CHESTIN, I.E. 1998. TRADE IN BROWN BEAR GALL BLADDERS IN RUSSIA. Ursus, 10, 161-166.

Abstract: Trade in gall bladders of brown bears (Ursus arctos) has been practiced in Russia for at least a century. Trade increased dramatically starting in 1991 as a consequence of opening state borders, weakening state control, and increasing economic needs of local people. From 1991- 94 bile was traded throughout Russia, most intensively in the far east where sophisticated dealer networks have apparently developed. Analysis of prices for bile in Russia and other countries in 1994-95 indicated that the major destinations for bile from Russia are Japan, Macau, South Korea, and Taiwan. Bile from Russian bears may also contribute to medicinal markets in oriental communities in Western Europe. Thousands of gall bladders are smuggled from Russia annually and it is still not clear where these go. Customs control is very weak and probably will not be improved in the near future. I analyze recent trends in trade of brown bear parts in Russia and adjacent countries, based on interviews with local mammalogists from spring 1993 and 1994.


CHI, D. K., CHESTER, D., & GILBERT, B.K. 1998. EFFECTS OF CAPTURE PROCEDURES ON BLACK BEAR ACTIVITY AT AN ALASKAN SALMON STREAM. Ursus, 10, 563-569.

Abstract: We examined the effects of capture and handling on fishing activity of black bears (Ursus americanus) at Anan Creek in Southeast Alaska. The bears had no previous experience with capture procedures. One female brown bear, 9 male black bears, and 4 female black bears were captured (trapped or darted), collared, and ear-tagged by Alaska Department of Fish and Game personnel between 24 July and 1 August 1993. Observational data on bear behavior were collected before and after capture procedures from 16 July-4 September 1993 (296 observation hours) and from 3 July-27 August 1994 (258 observation hours). We observed a significant decline in the number of different individuals on the river following the week of capture and handling in 1993. In addition, approximately 46% of the collared bears were not seen again at Anan Creek throughout the remainder of the 1993 season. This percent declined to <30% by 16 August 1993. The next year, when no bears were captured and handled, these patterns were not observed. Furthermore, we found little evidence to suggest that bears abandoned Anan Creek immediately following capture and handling because of other ecological factors (i.e., brown bear activity [Ursus arctos], pink salmon [Oncorhynchus gorbuscha] inaccessibility, berry availability and productivity). Although many black bears at Anan Creek tolerated recreational viewing by humans, disappearance of bears from the capture site suggests that they were displaced by capture and handling activities.


CLARK, D.A. & STIRLING, I. 1998. HABITAT PREFERENCES OF POLAR BEARS IN THE HUDSON BAY LOWLANDS DURING LATE SUMMER AND FALL. Ursus, 10, 243-250.

Abstract: From late July through early November, polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in western Hudson Bay are on shore because the annual ice melts. During this period, bears segregate by age and sex classes into different habitats. We investigated habitat selection using the locations of 1,131 captures made from 1966 to 1994. Adult males, the most dominant bears, were found most often in coastal areas, especially on beach ridges. This enables them to keep cool during summer and move little while fasting until freeze-up, thereby conserving stored energy reserves. Lone adult females and females accompanied by dependent young moved inland during the ice-free period and selected riparian, lakeshore, and lichen tundra habitats. We conclude that avoiding adult males, thermoregulation, and suitable denning habitat are the most important factors causing adult females to move to the inland areas and to select habitats once there. Subadult females were distributed through all habitat types while subadult male distribution paralleled adult males. Production of berries, as a potential food source, probably does not influence inland distribution.


CLARK, J.D., HAYES, S.R., & PLEDGER, J.M. 1998. A FEMALE BLACK BEAR DENNING HABITAT MODEL USING A GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM. Ursus, 10, 181-185.

Abstract: We used the Mahalanobis distance statistic and a raster geographic information system (GIS) to model potential black bear (Ursus americanus) denning habitat in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas. The Mahalanobis distance statistic was used to represent the standard squared distance between sample variates in the GIS database (forest cover type, elevation, slope, aspect, distance to streams, distance to roads, and forest cover richness) and variates at known bear dens. Two models were developed: a generalized model for all den locations and another specific to dens in rock cavities. Differences between habitat at den sites and habitat across the study area were represented in 2 new GIS themes as Mahalanobis distance values. Cells similar to the mean vector derived from the known dens had low Mahalanobis distance values, and dissimilar cells had high values. The reliability of the predictive model was tested by overlaying den locations collected subsequent to original model development on the resultant den habitat themes. Although the generalized model demonstrated poor reliability, the model specific to rock dens had good reliability. Bears were more likely to choose rock den locations with low Mahalanobis distance values and less likely to choose those with high values. The model can be used to plan the timing and extent of management actions (e.g., road building, prescribed fire, timber harvest) most appropriate for those sites with high or low denning potential.


CONSOLO MURPHY, S. & KAEDING, B. 1998. FISHING BRIDGE: 25 YEARS OF CONTROVERSY REGARDING GRIZZLY BEAR MANAGEMENT IN YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. Ursus, 10, 385-393.

Abstract: Scientists and managers want to use the best available information to make decisions that affect natural resources. However, we believe the case history of research and management of the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) in the Fishing Bridge area of Yellowstone National Park typifies the frequent failure of effective information transfer between scientists, managers, and the public. For 25 years, plans to reduce human influences on grizzly bears and their habitat have been revised or postponed, causing grizzly bear advocates to criticize managers' intent and commitment. The time lag between scientific data collection, analysis, and information transfer to decision makers as well as changes in both the biological and socio-political environment hindered progress toward what was clearly intended as a benefit to the ecosystem's population of grizzly bears. This case study reaffirms the need for constant monitoring and evaluation of progress toward stated objectives and points to the need for increased flexibility in federal agencies' application of decision-making strategies. We suggest that agencies become familiar with techniques such as adaptive management as a method to adjust to constantly changing conditions.


CRAIGHEAD, D.J. 1998. AN INTEGRATED SATELLITE TECHNIQUE TO EVALUATE GRIZZLY BEAR HABITAT USE. Ursus, 10, 187-201.

Abstract: I present a method that combines 2 previously described remote-sensing techniques: Landsat-derived vegetation types (Craighead et al.1986, 1988) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Tiros satellite-derived locations of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis). This research was completed on a 5,931-km2 study area north of the Squirrel River, a tributary of the Kobuk River, in northwestern Alaska. Six satellite radiocollared grizzly bears were located a total of 1,624 times from 1986 to 1988. Habitat use was quantified and statistically evaluated by superimposing bear locations and home ranges on a map of vegetation cover types. I acknowledge the variability of the remote measurements and describe a technique to estimate the central tendency of a sample set of vegetation complexes about bear occurrences. The inference of selection or avoidance was made from the juxtaposition of bear and habitat. The analyses showed that individual bears clearly selected for specific habitat types, but as a group the bears were quite diverse in habitat use. This indicates that habitat needs of the studied grizzly bears were very broad and that their area requirements were expansive.


CRAIGHEAD, F.L., REYNOLDS, H.V., STROBECK, C., & VYSE, E.R. 1998. USE OF MICROSATELLITE DNA ANALYSES TO INFER BREEDING BEHAVIOR AND DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES IN AN ARCTIC GRIZZLY BEAR POPULATION. Ursus, 10, 323-327.

Abstract. Analyses of microsatellite DNA, combined with behavioral observations, indicated that female grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in the Arctic have a large male gene pool from which to choose. Males from a large surrounding area bred successfully with the females in our studyarea and competed. with males who centered most of their activities in the study area. Observations of breeding activity did not reliably indicate paternity, particularly under conditions where constant monitoring was not possible. Since females tend to be strongly philopatric, male behavior (influenced to some degree by female choice) is thus the primary mechanism for maintaining genetic diversity in brown or grizzly bear populations. In isolated populations with no influx of male genes from neighboring areas, genetic diversity should be correspondingly lower.


CRAIGHEAD, J.J. 1998. STATUS OF THE YELLOWSTONE GRIZZLY BEAR POPULATION: HAS IT RECOVERED, SHOULD IT BE DELISTED? Ursus, 10, 597-602.

Abstract.- The number of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and the size of their former range within the western states (USA) have declined drastically over the previous 200 years. The downward trend has continued most sharply in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, accelerated by the closing of open-pit garbage dumps in the late 1960s. The closure resulted in an estimated 50% reduction in population size. The immediate response by bears to the dump closures was significant movement into campgrounds and developed areas where many bears were captured and destroyed. Over a period of 15 years, the surviving bears moved out from aggregation centers (open-pit dumps, termed ecocenters) to exploit more fully the natural food base. The major detectable difference in resource use between pre- and post-closure periods was an especially heavy use of forbs. There was no evidence that the post-closure bear population found nutritional resources comparable to the ecocenters. Bears changed feeding habits and altered their distribution and use of space throughout the ecosystem. Recovery of a single grizzly bear population unit such as the Yellowstone population should be considered the first step in a multi-step recovery program for long-term persistence in the contiguous 48 states. Delisting of the Yellowstone population, if it occurs at all, must await population recovery throughout the Northern Rockies.

ELGMORK, K. & UNANDER, S. 1998. BROWN BEAR USE OF ANT MOUNDS IN SCANDINAVIA. Ursus, 10, 269-274.

Abstract: Brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Scandinavia forage in early spring on ants (Formicidae) they excavate from large ant mounds. We collected information on the selection and handling of ant mounds by bears by following their tracks in snow during 3 consecutive spring seasons in 1970-72 in the Vassfaret arva of central southern Norway. The density of large ant mounds in the study area was about 9/krn of bear track or about 3 mounds/ha. Approximately half of the 143 ant mounds recorded were excavated by bears. The excavations ranged from superficial to complete; 9 completely excavated ant mounds were used as day beds, the others for food. The excavated ant mounds were relatively large, spanning 60-190 cm in base diameter and 40-150 cm in height. Excavated mounds were smaller, had more ants present, and had greater vegetative cover than untouched mounds.


FISCHER, H. & ROY, M. 1998. NEW APPROACHES TO CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT: RECOVERY IN THE BITTERROOT ECOSYSTEM. Ursus, 10, 603-606.

Abstract: In the 6 recovery zones identified in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's recovery plan for the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), the Bitterroot Ecosystem of central Idaho and western Montana is the only one that no longer retains even a remnant grizzly population. With >6 million acres of unoccupied habitat, most of it designated as wilderness, the Bitterroot Ecosystem presents a unique recovery opportunity-the chance to expand bear numbers and range in the continental United States by nearly one-third, with potential for eventually linking existing bear populations in northwestern Montana and Yellowstone. We describe the Bitterroot recovery planning process to date and highlight a new, collaborative approach to grizzly recovery being promoted by several conservation and forest industry organizations. The centerpiece of this new approach is citizen participation and control in recovery decision-making. If successful, this citizen-driven approach will reduce polarization, save money, restore grizzly bears, and provide an important new model for solving contentious endangered species problems.


GARSHELIS, D.L. & McLAUGHLIN, C.R. 1998. REVIEW AND EVALUATION OF BREAKAWAY DEVICES FOR BEAR RADIOCOLLARS. Ursus, 10, 459-465.

Abstract. Researchers often handle radiocollared bears on an annual basis, so collars can be readjusted. However, if a collar cannot be refitted (as when a bear becomes lost to the investigator because of radio transmitter failure), the animal maybe subjected to lifelong neck irritation or more serious injury. To prevent this, devices have been developed that enable collars to eventually break away. During 1983-95, we used a piece of vegetable-tanned leather to link the 2 ends of radiocollars on black bears (Ursus americanus). The link was intended to break apart in 1-3 years if the bear was not handled and the link changed. We used unoiled links in Maine (n = 756) and oiled links in Minnesota (n = 549), and we set strict standards on the thickness of links used in Minnesota; we found that the Minnesota links were less prone (1%) to breaking off prematurely (< 1 year). We also surveyed other bear researchers, 93 % of which employed some sort of breakaway device; 13 different breakaway designs were described, of which 4 were commonly used. Of these, a linkage constructed of latex tubing tended to be most prone to premature breakage, whereas leather was least apt to break prematurely; links made of cotton belting or firehose were intermediate in their tendency to break too early. If the link did persist and was not changed in <1 year, an across-study average of about 75% of links made of latex, cotton, and firehose broke as intended, compared to 60% of leather links. However, breakage seemed to be prompted as much by pressure on the link as by weathering; thus, collars that did not break in the prescribed time might not have been tight. Despite the potential
for premature breakage of some links and the chance that some last longer than desired, we strongly recommend their use over collars without breakaway devices.


GARSHELIS, D.L., NOYCE, K.V., & COY, P.L. 1998. CALCULATING AVERAGE AGE OF FIRST REPRODUCTION FREE OF THE BIASES PREVALENT IN BEAR STUDIES. Ursus, 10, 437-447.

Abstract: The average age of first reproduction appears to be a useful index of habitat quality for bear populations. However, the conventional method for calculating this age, using only bears whose first litters were observed, gives a low-biased estimate. This bias is a consequence of losing bears approaching their cub-producing years due to death, lost radio contact, or removal of radiocollar. Late-maturing bears are more likely than early-maturing bears to be lost before they produce a litter; thus, if they are not included in the sample, the estimate becomes biased low. We propose a method that generates virtually unbiased estimates of the mean and median ages of primiparity using data from bears that did not produce cubs as well as from those that did. First. We calculated the proportion of females that produced a first litter among all nulliparous females monitored at each age; these proportions are weighted by the proportion of females in the population that are available to have a first litter at each age. This procedure is analogous to the estimation of survivorship based on radio-days of monitoring. We tested our method using data from radiocollared black bears (Ursus americanus) in Minnesota and Massachusetts and found that the conventional method underestimated both the mean and median ages of first reproduction by 0.2-0.5 years. Our approach produced an estimate of the expected age of first reproduction free of the effects of study-related shortcomings and independent of mortality. This estimate is more appropriate for cross-population comparisons, as well as for population modeling.


GAUTESTAD, A.0., MYSTERUD, I., & PELTON, M.R. 1998. COMPLEX MOVEMENT AND SCALE-FREE HABITAT USE: TESTING THE MULTI-SCALED HOME-RANGE MODEL ON BLACK BEAR TELEMETRY DATA. Ursus, 10, 219-234.

Abstract: Black bears (Ursus americanus) use the landscape over relatively coarse scales compared to many other mammals. We analyzed the way these animals relate to their habitat in general terms using a statistical approach. A priori, we conceived of scale-specific and scale-free types of habitat use. The scale-specific model assumes that an individual's movements are due to dynamic responses to the individual's perceptions over a limited spatial scale that reflects the circle of perception (CP) around the animal's location. Using serial processing, the animal moves to new sites, gaining new perceptions that lead to new movements, but is constrained by site fidelity (home range, HR) tendencies. This model is of a scale-specific statistical process at the scale of CP. According to the alternative model, individuals now and then use memory maps of past experiences to take strategic, relatively directed (i.e., coarse-scaled) movements beyond the CP but within the HR using principles from parallel processing. Although the former model is more traditionally used in modeling, the latter more closely resembles an ecological understanding of animal behavior. Our model, the multi-scaled random walk (MRW), assumes (1) spatially explicit memory effects, and (2) that optimization of patch use at coarse scales is as important as optimization at finer scales over the scale range from CP to HR. Mechanistically, this property makes the habitat use process scale-free, or fractal, over this range of scales. From the 2 basic MRW assumptions, the observed part of the HR area (A) from n non-autocorrelated relocations is expected to increase proportionally with the square root of n up to n well beyond the limits of applied ecology. We verify the predictions of this model on telemetry material on black bear movements. Some implications for bear research and management are discussed.


GIBEAU, M.L. 1998. GRIZZLY BEAR HABITAT EFFECTIVENESS MODEL FOR BANFF, YOHO, AND KOOTENAY NATIONAL PARKS, CANADA. Ursus, 10, 235-241.

Abstract: Changes in land use are currently accelerating development pressures in the Central Canadian Rocky Mountains. Given the existing and proposed human influences in the region, cumulative effects are a major issue, especially for carnivores. I quantitatively and qualitatively assess the effects of human actions on grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) and their habitat. Since 1985, a cumulative effects model (CEM) for grizzly bears has evolved into the consolidated form used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service. The habitat effectiveness model presented in this paper follows the USDA Forest Service CEM with minor changes to allow our data to conform to the process. I analyzed a study area of approximately, 9,300 km2, and results indicate that much of the 3 National Parks are only moderately productive habitat, excluding human influences. Adding the effects of humans, the modelled ability of the landscape to support bears is significantly reduced. The model suggests widespread habitat alienation in what is supposed to be core refugia for grizzly bears, questioning the ability of the landscape to support a viable population. This situation we find ourselves in is a particularly difficult one, given that incremental recreational development has never been considered a threat to the protected status of Canadian national parks. In the Canadian Rockies, mountain national parks function as de facto core refugia for grizzly bears. With continued erosion of grizzly bear habitat in what is supposed to be core refugia, time is clearly not on the park manager's side. Swift, and in some cases, drastic management action is needed if we are to stem grizzly bear extinction within the ecosystem.


GNIADEK, S.J. & KENDALL, K.C. 1998. A SUMMARY OF BEAR MANAGEMENT IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA, 1960-1994. Ursus, 10, 155-159.

Abstract: Bear management in Glacier National Park (GNP), Montana, has evolved from 1960 to 1994. Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and black bears (U. americanus) have become more highly valued in both a social and an ecological context. Management has shifted from focusing on removing problem animals to preventing problem bear behavior by modifying human behavior. Reducing the availability of human foods to wildlife and tolerating natural defensive reactions by bears coincided with a decline in the number of bears killed or relocated. Reported sightings of black and grizzly bears have risen from 192 in 1967 to 2,075 in 1994, suggesting that bear populations have increased. However, we suggest the number of bear sightings is an unreliable indicator of population trend. Human injuries resulting from black bear encounters declined to near zero with the control of human food and garbage. The grizzly bear-inflicted human injury rate, however, continued to increase. Progress in understanding the causes will not be made until reliable information on bear populations and human backcountry use is available.


GROFF, C., CALIARI, A., DORIGATTI, E., & GOZZI, A. 1998. SELECTION OF DENNING CAVES BY BROWN BEARS IN TRENTINO, ITALY. Ursus, 10, 275-279.

Abstract: We studied 21 brown bear (Ursus arctos) dens in the mountains of the northeast Brenta range in Trentino, Italy. Of these, 2 dens were located during the late 1970s using radio-tracking, 1 den was located in 1989 by a different researcher, and 18 dens were located by the authors between 1988 and 1994. Two dens were excavated and 19 were in natural cavities. Bedding material in these dens consisted of nest-like beds (n = 15 dens), a hole dug in the earth (n = 2), bedding materials spread out on the ground (n = 3), and no bed in 1 excavated den. Nine dens showed signs of recent use. To determine factors bears use to select a hibernation site, characteristics (e.g., elevation, exposure, slope angle, and distance from sources of disturbance) were noted for 19 dens located in the area where bears are constantly present and compared with the same characteristics taken from 100 uniformly distributed sites in the same area. Elevation of the den sites ranged between 970-1940 m. The angle of the slopes on which the dens were located ranged between 28 - 60 Brown bears preferred den sites with southern exposure over those with a northern exposure and used slopes facing all cardinal compass directions.


GULA, R., FRACKOWIAK, W., & PERZANOWSKI, K. 1998. CURRENT STATUS AND CONSERVATION NEEDS OF BROWN BEARS IN THE
POLISH CARPATHIANS. Ursus, 10, 81-86.

Abstract: The present status and main threats to the future viability of brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Poland were evaluated. The remaining 80-90 individuals are found only in the Carpathian Mountains and feed on a variety natural foods, but occasionally kill livestock and cause damage to beehives. Several factors including poaching, local development, logging patterns, and increasing tourism may contribute considerably to the reduced viability of the population. Successful bear conservation will require collection of basic ecological data, wider public education, and especially changes in logging patterns and long-term local development plans. The coordination of bear research and joint management of the Carpathian population in the region is urgent.


GUNTHER, K.A. & HOEKSTRA, H.E. 1998. BEAR-INFLICTED HUMAN INJURIES IN YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 1970-1994. Ursus, 10, 377-384.

Abstract: The implementation of a new bear management program in Yellowstone National Park in 1970 began a new era in bear-human interactions within the park. The rate of bear-inflicted human injuries decreased from 2.7/million visitors from 1970 through 1979 to 0.5/million visitors from 1980 through 1994. This was primarily due to decreased roadside injuries from black bears (Ursus americanus) as public education increased and food conditioned bears were removed from roadsides and developed areas. After 1980, the majority of injuries occurred in the backcountry. Backcountry injuries tended to be more severe and were more often caused by grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) than those that occurred along roadsides. Of the 34 injuries that occurred in the backcountry from 1970 through 1994, 13 (38%) were considered severe and 3 (9%) resulted in human fatalities. Ninety-one percent of all injuries in the backcountry involved people as they were hiking, and 9% occurred in backcountry campsites. Ninety-seven percent of the hikers injured by bears reported surprise encounters as the cause of the attack, and 68% of these incidents involved female bears with young. Most hikers that were injured (61%) reacted to encounters with bears by running or attempting to climb trees. Most (80%) hikers that resisted during bear attacks were severely injured. Backcountry injuries occurred both in forested habitat (68%) and nonforested areas (32%). Visitor and employee education on precautions to take when hiking in bear habitat may be the most useful tool in further decreasing bear-inflicted human injuries within Yellowstone National Park.


GUTLEB, B. 1998. THE BROWN BEAR IN CARINTHIA: HISTORY AND STATUS IN SOUTHERN AUSTRIA. Ursus, 10, 75-79.

Abstract: Places that are named after bears are spread over the whole of Carinthia and the rest of Austria. Although not all of these names derive directly from a former presence of brown bears (Ursus arctos), other historical data such as hunting statistics and bone collections confirm that there were bears living in all areas of Austria, including Carinthia. The brown bear in Carinthia has not been extirpated and continues to survive. Bears continue to travel to Carinthia along a 300-km corridor from the bear range of Slovenia and Croatia. Presently there are an estimated 12 bears in Carinthia and the surrounding area. They do not seem to depend on domestic livestock or beehives, but prefer natural foods. The amount of damage caused by bears is not high, averaging approximately $5,000/year during 1990-95. Reproduction was observed 3 times from 1989 to 1995 (2 cubs in 1989, 1 in 1990, 1 in 1995). If these bears are not cut off from the source population in Slovenia and Croatia and if negative public attitude present in other Austrian bear areas (2 bears were shot in 1994) does not spread to Carinthia, there is a realistic chance for the survival of this small bear population. There is an urgent need for a bear management plan for all areas of Austrian bear range.


HELLGREN, E.C. 1998. PHYSIOLOGY OF HIBERNATION IN BEARS. Ursus, 10, 467-477.

Abstract: Hibernation in the Ursidae has been extensively researched over the past 30 years. This paper reviews findings of that research in the areas of general physiology and energetics; protein, fat, and bone metabolism; metabolic endocrinology; reproductive physiology and lactation; serum chemistry and hematology; and the urea:creatinine ratio. Bears in hibernation exhibit several characteristics distinct from the deep hibernation of rodents, such as a lesser reduction in body temperature, protein conservation, lack of defecation and urination, and normal tone activity. The physiological constraints of hibernation are coupled to adaptations in reproductive physiology, such as delayed implantation and lactation. I argue that urea:creatinine is not a reliable indicator of hibernation, although ongoing research is searching for an opioid-like hibernation trigger. Study of hibernation physiology will continue to bear fruit, especially in the areas of evolution, physiology, and medicine.


HERRERO, S. & HIGGINS, A. 1998. FIELD USE OF CAPSICUM SPRAY AS A BEAR DETERRENT. Ursus, 10, 533-537.

Abstract: We analyzed 66 cases of field use of capsicum sprays between 1984-94. In 94% (15 of 16) of the close-range encounter, with aggressive brown (grizzly) bears (Ursus arctos), the spray appeared to stop the behavior that the bear was displaying immediately prior to being sprayed. In 6 cases, the bear continued to act aggressively; in 3 of these cases the bear attacked the person spraying. In 1 of these 3 cases, the bear left after further spraying. In all 3 injurious encounters, the bear received a substantial dose of spray to the face. In 88% (14/16). of the cases, the bear eventually left the area after being sprayed. While we do not know how these encounters would have ended in the absence of spray, the use of spray appears to have prevented injury in most of these encounters. In 100% (20 of 20) of the encounters with curious brown bears or bears searching for people's food or garbage, the spray appeared to stop the behavior. The bear left the area in 90% (18 of 20) of the cases. In only 2 of these 18 cases was it known to have returned. In 100% (4 of 4) of the encounters with aggressive and surprised, or possibly predacious black bears (Ursus americanus), the spray appeared to stop the behavior that the bear was displaying immediately prior to being sprayed. However, no bears left in response to being sprayed. In 73% (19 of 26) of the cases associated with curiosity, the spray appeared to stop the behavior. The bear left the area in 54% (14 of 26) of the cases, but in 6 of these 14 cases it returned. In 62% (8 of 13) of the incidents where the black bear received a substantial dose to the face, it either did not leave the area or left the area and returned. Sprays containing capsicum appear to be potentially useful in a variety of field situations: however, variable responses by bears occur. Because the database is composed of diverse field records, the results should be viewed with caution.


HUBER, D., KUSAK, J., & FRKOVIC, A. 1998. TRAFFIC KILLS OF BROWN BEARS IN GORSKI KOTAR, CROATIA. Ursus, 10, 167-171.

Abstract: At least 73 European brown bears (Ursus arctos) have been killed by vehicles in the forest region (1500 km2) of Gorski kotar, Croatia, from 1963 to 1994. Fifty-one (70%) were killed by trains along the Zagreb-Rijeka railway and 22 (30%) were killed by motor vehicles along roadways in Gorski kotar. Several parameters were measured at known collision sites (n = 46) and at an appropriate number of random sites (n = 61) along roads and railroads. Slope angle and length, as well as longitudinal and perpendicular visibility at accident and random sites were not significantly different. We concluded that microsite topography had little or no influence on the occurrence of bear traffic accidents. Instead, food sources related to human activities, such as garbage along roads, may have served as local attractants to bears and were found near at least 15 (33%) accident sites, but at only 5 (8%) of the random sites. We found that 3 main corridors for bear movements were cut by traffic lines. Provisional mitigation measures were proposed to reduce conflict between bears and traffic, and an artificial tunnel or green bridge (100.5 im long) was added to a new highway project.


JONES, M.D., WARBURTON, G.S., & PELTON, M.R. 1998. MODELS FOR PREDICTING OCCUPIED BLACK BEAR HABITAT IN COASTAL NORTH CAROLINA. Ursus, 10, 203-207.

Abstract: Black bears (Ursus americanus) are restricted to approximately 10% of their historical range in the Southeast. While the southern Appalachian mountains contain a relatively contiguous black bear population, southeastern coastal plain populations are fragmented across several states. Some bear populations in southeastern coastal areas are declining or threatened, yet occupied bear habitat in coastal North Carolina has increased from 667,000 ha (1971) to 2.2 million ha (1991). These contrasting situations in the Southeast warrant the development of quantifiable techniques for determining suitable black bear habitat on a regional scale. Predicting black bear distribution is a critical first step in determining suitable habitat. We tested 12 habitat variables, using 6 backward elimination multiple regression equations, against occupied range and changes in occupied range in coastal North Carolina. Human density and percent of a county in total forest land, loblolly-shortleaf (Pinus taeda-P. echinata), oak-gum-cypress (Quercus spp.-Nyssa spp.-Taxodium distichum), wheat, and soybeans were accurate predictors ( = 0.05) of current black bear distribution. Only changing human density and changing percent forest land accurately predicted changes in distribution through time. The black bear range expansion in eastern North Carolina, coupled with the results of these models, points to the adaptability of black bears and the complicated nature of bear-habitat relationships in areas influenced by major landscape changes. Managers in other regions may wish to develop similar models for the specific habitat characteristics of their areas. Such models may be used to predict the suitability of areas for restoration or the long-term consequences of habitat alterations. We recommend that bear managers in the southeastern coastal plain consider the juxtaposition of contiguous forested areas and oak-gum-cypress forests with areas of suitable bear food crops on a landscape scale and develop cooperative efforts with the forest industry to enhance habitat management.

KASBOHM, J.W., VAUGHAN, M.R., & KRAUS, J.G. 1998. BLACK BEAR HOME RANGE DYNAMICS AND MOVEMENT PATTERNS DURING A GYPSY MOTH INFESTATION. Ursus, 10, 259-267.

Abstract: During 1985-89 in Shenandoah National Park (SNP), Virginia, a severe gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) infestation resulted in wide spread overstory canopy defoliation and a complete acorn crop failure in defoliated areas. We believed canopy opening and food supply alterations would lead to increased black bear (Ursus americanus) movements, especially in the fall as bears searched for acorns, and consequently, greater seasonal range sizes than prior to the infestation (1982-84). Female bear convex and concave polygon range areas determined with radio telemetry were not significantly different before and during defoliation in spring or summer. Fall range areas, however, were twice as large for bears in defoliated areas of SNP during infestation (P = 0325 and 0001 for convex and concave areas, respectively) and resulted in significantly larger annual areas used by bears (mean convex areas: 26.7 km2 before versus 40.7 km2 during infestation for solitary females and 14.6 before versus 34.2 km2 during for females with cubs-of-the-year). Seasonal movements of females were consistent with range area data. Distances of shifts in seasonal geometric range centers were not different for spring to summer or early to late fall moves. However, summer to early fall shifts were twice as great (P = 0.072) during 1987-89 in defoliated areas than during 1982-84. Although acorn failure may have stimulated some bears to initiate fall moves, in 35 of 59 cases monitored bears remained in their traditional spring-summer ranges throughout the fall. Of those that did move, only 14 of 24 found acorns. Most females in this study successfully relied on soft mast fruits as alternative fall foods.


KASWORM, W.F., THIER, T.J., & SERVHEEN, C. 1998. GRIZZLY BEAR RECOVERY EFFORTS IN THE CABINET/YAAK ECOSYSTEM. Ursus, 10, 147-153.

Abstract: Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) conservation in the Cabinet/Yaak grizzly bear ecosystem (CYE) is an example of intensive efforts with a small population of approximately 30 individuals. The ecosystem is located in northwest Montana and northern Idaho and encompasses more than 6,800 km2. The Yaak area adjoins bear habitat in Canada and is connected to Cabinet Mountains habitat by two 12-km wide corridors across the Kootenai River. Grizzly bear research was conducted in the Cabinet Mountains from 1983 to 1988 to determine habitat use and statusof the population. The study concluded that the probability of the loss of this population (n < 15) in the next few decades was high. The study recommended that the population be augmented with transplants. A test of grizzly bear augmentation in the Cabinet Mountains began in 1990 to determine if transplanted bears would remain and reproduce. Four subadult female bears (2-6 years old) from southeast British Columbia were transplanted to the Cabinet Mountains during 1990-94. Research to examine population status, habitat use, and relations to human activities such as road building and timber harvest in the Yaak portion of the CYE began in 1986. Trapping resulted in the capture of 13 individuals. Trap nights required to capture a grizzly bear in the Yaak area were about 15% of that in the Cabinet Mountains. Though numbers of bears in the Yaak area may be small (n = 15-20), that subpopulation appears to be stable or increasing. Grizzly bear recovery goals for population demographic parameters, habitat management, and mitigation for mine development are discussed.

KOENE, P. 1998. ADAPTATION OF BLIND BROWN BEARS TO A NEW ENVIRONMENT AND ITS RESIDENTS: STEREOTYPY AND PLAY AS WELFARE INDICATORS. Ursus, 10, 579-587.

Abstract: Fourteen European brown bears (Ursus arctos) were confiscated in Turkey in October 1993. Three bears-1 female and 2 males-were blind and showed mainly stereotypies and behavior toward others that was passive, aggressive, or both. These blind bears were transported to the Zoo in the Netherlands and placed in an enclosure with 8 resident wolves and 7 resident bears, all with normal vision. Problems were expected concerning the adaptation to the new environment and the interactions with other animals. Three ethological studies were done in 3 phases: (1) experimental behavioral study during release, (2) behavioral description in the stable phase following release, and (3) detailed description of play behavior of blind and other bears. The blind bears had very few contacts with the electric fencing. After such a contact the bears immediately returned to the quarantine facility and stayed there for a long period. The female bear sometimes showed stereotypies during the first 6 stages of the release, but they were not observed after stage 6. Bears played much of the time in phases 2 and 3. The decrease in stereotypies and the increase in playing behavior may reflect improved welfare of the blind bears. However, comparison between individual reactions of the bears suggested different coping styles, as is found in other species. The 2 male bears developed an active coping style with many playful interactions with other bears, whereas the female showed a more passive coping style.


KOHN, M.H. & KNAUER, F. 1998. PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF BROWN BEARS IN EUROPE AND EXCREMENTAL PCR THE NEW TOOL IN THE GENETIC ANALYSIS OF ANIMALS IN THE WILD. Ursus, 10, 315-321.

Abstract: Brown bears (Ursus arctos) in western and eastern Europe reportedly have different evolutionary histories. This finding is based on the occurrence of 2 distinct clades of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genotypes in bear populations throughout Europe. Contact zones between populations of the 2 clades are found in Sweden and Romania. Patterns of variation below the species level raise the issue of what the unit of management should be. To investigate the nature of the contact zone in Romania, which contains both clades of mtDNA genotypes, we analyzed the spatial distribution of genotypes and the sex of the animals. One site in Romania contained individuals of both sexes that belong to either clade, thus excluding a spatial separation of individuals of different sexes from different clades. The maintenance of the contact zone is attributed to little female dispersal. Genetic data from small and endangered populations can be obtained noninvasively through the amplification from DNA sequences from excrement samples using the polymerase chain reaction (excremental PCR). Excremental PCR has provided important data on demography, genetic variability, phylogeny, and even feeding habits of the dwindling brown bear population of the Brenta Mountains in northern Italy's Trentino Province. These bears are members of the western clade and contain the same genotype as bears found in Slovenia, Bosnia, Croatia, and Romania. Restocking of the Brenta population is planned with bears from Slovenia. We analyzed genetic data of the European brown bear in terms of phylogeography and gene flow to provide a basis for management decisions.


KONTIO, B.D., GARSHELIS, D.L., BIRNEY, E.C., & ANDERSEN, D.E. 1998. RESILIENCE OF A MINNESOTA BLACK BEAR POPULATION TO HEAVY HUNTING:
SELF-SUSTAINING POPULATION OR POPULATION SINK? Ursus, 10, 139-146.

Abstract.- We studied a heavily-hunted population of black bears (Ursus americanus) on the periphery of the tear range in east-central Minnesota in 1991 and 1992. This was one of the few areas in Minnesota where hunting pressure was not controlled by a quota on the number of hunting licenses. We hypothesized that the area supported high harvest levels because it was a population sink supplied by seasonal migrants, dispersing subadult male immigrants, or both from northern Minnesota. However, we captured 7 female and 5 adult male bears during late summer and from radiotracking found that all were residents of the study area. Also, the following evidence indicated that immigration of young males was not sustaining the population: (1) males made up a similar fraction of the harvest in the study area (53.6%) as statewide (53.1%); (2) the rate of decline in the ratio of males to females in each harvested age class, due to high harvest mortality that depleted male numbers faster than females, showed no sign of being retarded by an influx of males; and (3) yearling males, an age group not heavily represented among dispersers, composed a high proportion of the harvest. A simple deterministic model suggested that the population could remain stationary or grow with current harvest pressure. Thus, the area was not a population sink.


KUSAK, J. & HUBER, D. 1998. BROWN BEAR HABITAT QUALITY IN GORSKI KOTAR CROATIA. Ursus, 10, 281-291.

Abstract: The brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in Croatia is a possible source of bears for reintroducing and augmenting disappearing European brown bear populations in western Europe. For successful reintroduction, knowledge about bear habitat quality of both source and target areas is necessary. We developed a habitat suitability index (HSI) model to assess European brown bear habitat quality in Gorski kotar, Croatia. Important habitat variables included seasonal foods, cover, roads, and fragmentation. Food sources were available year-round, whereas foraging and denning cover were more limited. Human influence was manifested through a relatively high density of roads (1.91 km/km2), which included forest roads. Habitat fragmentation did not occur within the study area, but a highway under construction was a possible threat. The overall HSI value of 0.42 for the entire area indicated that brown bear habitat in Gorski kotar is average. Brown bear habitat could be improved with changes in management practices such as closing forest roads, seasonally avoiding logging in denning areas, and reducing reforestation of beech-fir (Fagus sp.-Abies sp.) areas to spruce (Picea abies).


MacHUTCHON, A.G., HIMMER, S., DAVIS, H., & GALLAGHER, M. 1998. TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL ACTIVITY PATTERNS AMONG COASTAL BEAR POPULATIONS. Ursus, 10, 539-546.

Abstract: We examined temporal and spatial activity of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and black bears (Ursus americanus) in 3 areas of coastal British Columbia to investigate (1) variation within and between the 2 species, and (2) the influence of human activity on bear activity. Bear detections at remote camera sites were used to measure activity. The Nimpkish Valley had black bears only, and high human use divided into periods with and without hunting. Black bears were active primarily during the day, whether there was hunting or not. In the Khutzeymateen Valley, grizzly bears were active primarily during the day, and black bears were nocturnal; there was no human use. Black bears likely avoided some areas because of the presence of grizzly bears. The Tweedsmuir study area had black bears and grizzly bears in areas of both low and high human use. Grizzly bears were detected more frequently than black bears in low and high human use areas. During periods when bears were fishing for salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), lone adult grizzly bears and grizzly bear family groups were both detected less frequently and were more active during the night in the area of high human use than in the area of low human use. Subadult grizzly bears were detected more frequently in the area of high human use than in the area of low human use, and they tended to be more active during the day. Coastal grizzly bears were generally diurnal in areas of low human use. In areas of high human use, grizzly bears had different temporal and spatial activity patterns, and the magnitude and direction of these differences varied between age and sex classes. Black bears seemed to alter their temporal patterns of activity more in response to grizzly bear activity than to human activity.


MANO, T. 1998. HARVEST HISTORY OF BROWN BEARS IN THE OSHIMA PENINSULA, HOKKAIDO, JAPAN. Ursus, 10, 173-180.

Abstract: I investigated the history of the brown bear (Ursus arctos yesoensis) harvest in the Oshima Peninsula, Hokkaido, by analyzing hunting statistics and interviewing hunters. The mean annual harvest between 1909-38 and 1963-93 was 38.8 bears (SD = 21.3) and 76.0 (SD = 29.8) bears, respectively. During 1966-87, when spring prophylactic hunting was allowed, 58% of the harvest (n = 1,849) was taken during March-May and 32% during September-November. After the spring prophylactic harvest was abolished in 1990, harvests during March-May declined to 21% (n = 287) while September-November harvests increased to 61% of the total. Furthermore, proportions of males and adults in the harvest increased and proportion of females with young bears and cubs declined. Between 1983 and 1987 the spring harvests occurred mainly in the principal bear habitat in the interior of the peninsula, whereas summer and autumn harvests occurred in farmlands or residential areas along the coast or in valleys. Total harvest did not always decline after spring harvest was stopped because of increased autumn harvests resulting primarily from control actions. Further measures should be taken to decrease total harvest of brown bears in this region.


MATSON, G.M. & KERR, K.D. 1998. A METHOD FOR DATING TETRACYCLINE BIOMARKERS IN BLACK BEAR CEMENTUM. Ursus, 10, 455-458.

Abstract: Dating of the tetracycline biomarker in a tooth section of a black bear (Ursus americanus) can be accomplished by noting its position relative to that of the cementum annuli which indicate age. However, annuli and biomarkers are best demonstrated by different laboratory techniques. The technique used for the biomarker, calcified sections examined using epi-fluorescence microscopy, does not clearly demonstrate annuli. Conversely, the histological staining technique that is best for viewing annuli must be preceded by decalcification, which destroys the tetracycline biomarker. We combined the methods by first using epi-fluorescent photomicrography to record the biomarker's position in a calcified section. Next, the section was decalcified and stained to monstrate cementum annuli and photographed using bright-field illumination. The resulting 2 photographs were compared to date the biomarker to die nearest year by determining is exact position relative to annuli.

MATTSON, D.J. 1998. CHANGES IN MORTALITY OF YELLOWSTONE'S GRIZZLY BEARS. Ursus, 10, 129-138.

Abstract: Records of grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) deaths are currently used by managers to indicate trends in actual grizzly bear mortality and to judge the effectiveness of management. Two assumptions underlie these current uses: first, that recorded mortality is an unbiased indicator of actual mortality, and second, that changes in mortality after implementation of management strategies are sufficient grounds to infer the effects of management. I examined the defensibility of these 2 assumptions relative to alternate explanations, circumstantial evidence, and the potential costs of error. The potentially complex relation between actual and recorded mortality, as currently tallied and used, was reason to expect that the association between these 2 values would be weak. This expectation was supported by the prevalence (60-76%) of radio-marked bears among recorded deaths, the variation in apparent likelihood of documentation among causes of death, and variation in the prevalence of different causes over time. For these reasons, recorded mortality is likely to be an unreliable indicator of actual mortality. Use of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis)seeds by grizzly bears had a major effect on annual variation in recorded mortality. Low numbers of recorded deaths, 1984-92, were attributable to relatively frequent large whitebark pine seed crops. There was little or no residual trend potentially ascribed to management intervention during 1976-92. Management intervention was probably responsible for observed changes in recorded causes of death and stabilized recorded mortality over the period covered by this analysis.


MATTSON, D.J. 1998. DIET AND MORPHOLOGY OF EXTANT AND RECENTLY EXTINCT NORTHERN BEARS. Ursus, 10, 479-496.

Abstract: I examined the relationship of diets to skull morphology of extant northern bears and used this information to speculate on diets of the recently extinct cave (Ursus spelaeus) and short-faced (Arctodus simus) bears. Analyses relied upon published skull measurements and food habits of Asiatic (U. thibetanus) and American (U. americanus) black bears, polar bears (U. maritimus), various subspecies of brown bears (U. arctos), and the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). Principal components analysis showed major trends in skull morphology related to size, crushing force, and snout shape. Giant pandas, short-faced bears, cave bears, and polar bears exhibited extreme features along these gradients. Diets of brown bears in colder, often non-forested environments were distinguished by large volumes of roots, foliage, and vertebrates, while diets of the 2 black bear species and brown bears occupying broadleaf forests contained greater volumes of mast and invertebrates and overlapped considerably. Fractions of fibrous foods in feces (foliage and roots) were strongly related to skull morphology (R2 = 0.97). Based on this relationship, feces of cave and short-faced bears were predicted to consist almost wholly of foliage, roots, or both. I hypothesized that cave bears specialized in root grubbing. In contrast, based upon body proportions and features of the ursid digestive tract, I hypothesized that skull features associated with crashing; force facilitated a carnivorous rather than herbivorous diet for short-faced bears.


McDONALD, JR.J.E. & FULLER, T.K. 1998. TESTING ASSUMPTIONS IN BEAR RESEARCH: USING STATISTICAL POWER ANALYSIS TO ESTIMATE EFFECTS OF DEN TYPE ON BLACK BEAR CUB SURVIVAL. Ursus, 10, 405-411.

Abstract: Statistical tests on data from black bear (Ursus americanus) research often have low power because of limited sample sizes and sometimes subtle effects. We used the assumption that den type (open nest, hollow tree, excavation, etc.) has some effect on first year cub survival to illustrate the use of statistical power in black bear research. We tested the hypotheses that den type does not affect minimum first-year cub survival (MFYS) in Massachusetts (MA) or Minnesota (MN), demonstrated the necessary sample sizes to conduct high power tests ( 0.80) of these hypotheses, and illustrated the use of power analysis in the design of bear research. Dens were assigned to 1 of 3 categories based on assumed thermal advantage. We used single factor analysis of variance to estimate effect of natal den type on MFYS with 0.05 and to confidently conclude no effect with power 0.80. We obtained data on 47 litters in MA (1985-95) and 85 litters in MN (1982-94). For both states, we failed to reject the hypothesis that den type does not affect MFYS (MA: F = 0.63; 2,44 df; P = 0.539, power = 0. 139; MN: F = 1.26; 2,82 df; P = 0.291, power = 0.258). However, the low power in each case precluded definitive conclusions regarding the effect of den type on MFYS. Achievement of power = 0.80, given the actual sample sizes in each case and = 0.05, would have required large effect sizes. Given the observed effect sizes (MA = 0.155, NIN = 0.166) and = 0.05, total sample sizes of 395 litters in MA and 345 litters in MN would have been required to obtain power = 0.80. Our example illustrates the difficulty in testing hypotheses in black bear research. Although the MA and MN data represent 11 and 13 years of data collection respectively, neither generated sufficient sample sizes to adequately test a simple hypothesis with the design and analytical methods used in this study. Black bear researchers must consider power and draw only conclusions that are substantiated by their data.


McLELLAN, B.N. 1998. MAINTAINING VIABILITY OF BROWN BEARS ALONG THE SOUTHERN FRINGE OF THEIR DISTRIBUTION
. Ursus, 10, 607-611.

Abstract: In North America, threatened brown bears (Ursus arctos) and brown bear recovery are usually viewed as United States' issues. Most of the southern fringe of brown bear distribution, however, is in Canada; approximately 3,050 km of occupied-unoccupied fringe are in British Columbia and 1,570 km are in Alberta compared to 1,700 km in the lower 48 states. The distribution of brown bears in southern Canada has been poorly documented and publicized but, in addition to their inherent value, these bears are critical to the viability of brown bears in the U.S. In this paper I present a British Columbian view of brown bears along their southern fringe and human influences related to industry, settlement, hunting, and fragmentation. I also describe scales of land-use planning in British Columbia and the consensus process on which they are developed. Even with well intended plans, maintaining brown bear numbers and distribution is an increasingly difficult challenge because human populations are rapidly growing in and adjacent to brown bear range. Given the increase in people, human behavior will have to change to accommodate bears, and changing human behavior will involve reducing individual rights and privileges that are enjoyed in western North America
.


MILBURY, P.E., VAUGHAN, M.R., FARLEY, S., MATULA, JR.G.J., CONVERTINO, V.A., & MATSON, W.R. 1998. A COMPARATIVE BEAR MODEL FOR IMMOBILITY-INDUCED OSTEOPENIA. Ursus, 10, 507-520.

Abstract: The National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) are seeking solutions to the human problem of osteopenia, or immobility-induced bone loss. Bears, during winter dormancy, appear uniquely exempted from the debilitating effects of immobilitqy osteopenia. NIH and ESA, Inc. are creating a large database of metabolic information on human ambulatory and bedrest plasma samples for comparison with metabolic data obtained from bear plasma samples collected in different seasons. The database generated from NASA's HRI13 human bedrest study showed a clear difference between plasma samples of ambulatory and immobile subjects through cluster analysis using compounds determined by high performance liquid chromatography with coulometric electrochemical array detection (HPLC-EC). We collected plasma samples from black bears (Ursus americanus) across 4 seasons and from 3 areas and subjected them to similar analysis, with particular attention to compounds that changed significantly in the NASA human study. We found seasonal differences in 28 known compounds and 33 unknown compounds. A final database contained 40 known and 120 unknown peaks that were reliably assayed in all bear and human samples; these were the primary data set for interspecies comparison. Six unidentified compounds changed significantly but differentially in wintering bears and immobile humans. The data are discussed in light of current theories regarding dormancy, starvation, and anabolic metabolism. Work is in progress by ESA Laboratories on a larger database to confirm these findings prior to a chemical isolation and identification effort. This research could lead to new pharmaceuticals or dietary interventions for the treatment of immobility osteopenia.


MILLER, D.A., HALLERMAN, E.M., VAUGHAN, M.R., & KASBOH, J.W. 1998. GENETIC VARIATION IN BLACK BEAR POPULATIONS FROM LOUISIANA AND ARKANSAS: EXAMINING THE POTENTIAL INFLUENCE OF REINTRODUCTIONS FROM MINNESOTA. Ursus, 10, 335-341.

Abstract: Using multilocus DNA fingerprinting, we assessed potential genetic effects that may have been caused by translocation of American black bears (Ursus americanus americanus) from Minnesota to Louisiana and Arkansas. The bear population in northeastern Minnesota exhibits less within-population genetic similarity (similarity within = 0.57) than bear populations in Louisiana and Arkansas (similarities within = 0.74) (P < 0.001). Populations in Louisiana and Arkansas are more closely related to each other (similarity between = 0.53) than they are to the population in Minnesota (similarity between = 0.34) (P < 0.001, Mann-Whitney test). Analysis of band-sharing data indicated that any genetic impacts that may have been caused by the translocations were not statistically significant.

MILLER, S.M., MILLER, S.D., & McCOLLUM, D.W. 1998. ATTITUDES TOWARD AND RELATIVE VALUE OF ALASKAN BROWN AND BLACK BEARS TO RESIDENT VOTERS, RESIDENT HUNTERS, AND NONRESIDENT HUNTERS. Ursus, 10, 357-376.

Abstract: We describe and compare the economic benefits to and attitudes of 3 groups who use Alaskan brown bears (Ursus arctos) and black bears (U. americanus) for viewing and hunting. We compare benefits each group derived from use of bears with benefits derived from use of other wildlife species. The groups analyzed were resident and nonresident hunters who purchased hunting licenses in 1991 and Alaskan voters who were registered in 1990. Benefits of wildlife use by nonhunting nonresident tourists was not measured in this study. Each of the 3 groups was sampled in 1992 via a mailed survey designed to document their expenditures and net economic value (value from the resource in excess of what it cost to obtain) of an overnight hunting or wildlife viewing trip taken in 1991. We also documented willingness to pay for a hypothetical wildlife viewing opportunity. Alaskan voters and hunters supported hunting for meat, but only 22% of voters and 50% of resident hunters supported trophy hunting. About half of Alaskan voters and hunters indicated tolerance for bears in urban environments. A third of Alaskan voters reported that they sometimes avoided trips into the countryside because of concerns about bears. Most voters (63%) opposed baiting as a black bear hunting technique, but more hunters favored (47%) than opposed (39%) baiting. The average gross value (expenditures plus net value) of a voter's primary purpose wildlife viewing trip was calculated based on species
seen. Trips on which bears were seen had higher average gross values ($759) than trips on which other species were seen. Average gross value of a bear hunting trip (species combined) for an Alaska resident was $1,048 ($1,541 for a brown bear hunting trip). Trip-related expenditures more higher for nonresident brown bear hunters ($10,677) than for resident hunters ($1,247). Alaska resident hunters, nonresident hunters, and Alaskan voters were willing to pay more for a hypothetical day trip to view brown bears ($404, $364, and $485, respectively) than for other wildlife species. We calculated total social benefit as the product of average gross value of overnight hunting or viewing trips and the estimated number of such trips taken by each of the 3 populations sampled. Total social benefit calculations permitted comparisons of the total direct benefits received by different groups of a particular wildlife use (overnight trips to view or hunt different species of wildlife in our study). Resident hunting of wildlife (all species) provided more total social benefit ($84.25 million) than primary purpose wildlife viewing trips by residents ($52.96 million) or nonresident hunting trips ($41.92 million). For trips involving bear hunting or viewing, total social benefit was higher for primary purpose wildlife viewing trips when bears were seen ($29.11million) than for bear hunting trips taken by nonresidents ($17.05 million) or for bear hunting trips by residents ($4.15 million). Our analysis should be a useful component in the process of allocating wildlife uses among the claimants for priority in the use of these public resources.

MURPHY, K.M., FELZIEN, G.S., HORNOCKER, M.G., & RUTH, T.K. 1998. ENCOUNTER COMPETITION BETWEEN BEARS AND COUGARS: SOME ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS. Ursus, 10, 55-60.

Abstract.- Black bears (Ursus americanus) or grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) visited 8 of 55 cougar-killed (Felis concolor) ungulates in Glacier National Park (GNP), Montana from 1992 to 1995 and 19 of 58 cougar kills in Yellowstone National Park (YNP), Wyoming, from 1990 to 1995. Bears displaced cougars from 4 of 8 carcasses they visited in GNP and 7 of 19 in YNP. Cougar predation provided an average of 1.9 kg/day (range = 0-6.8 kg/day) of biomass to bears that fed on cougar-killed ungulates. This biomass was an important percent (up to 113%) of the daily energy needs of bears when compared to their caloric requirements reported in the literature. We suggest that ungulate carrion resulting from cougar predation is important nutritionally to bears in some regions and seasons. Cougars that were displaced from their kills by bears lost an average of 0.64 kg/day of ungulate biomass, or 17-26% of their daily energy requirements. Biologists modeling or measuring cougar predation rates should be aware that losses to scavengers may be significant.


NOBLE, W.O. & MESLOW, E.C. 1998. SPRING FORAGING AND FOREST DAMAGE BY BLACK BEARS IN THE CENTRAL COAST RANGES OF OREGON. Ursus, 10. 293-298.

Abstract: Damage to trees by black bears (Ursus americanus) is an ongoing problem inwest-coastal North America. We studied damage to Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) during spring by comparing food habits of bears between an area with high damage (north, 0N = 29.4 trees damaged/ha, SE = 60) and an area with low damage (south, 0s = 2.7 trees damaged/ha, SE = 1.6). We surveyed 40 forested stands in each area to measure and describe bear damage and to determine if site factors were related to damage levels. Analysis of scats revealed differences in spring diets that included a higher frequency of berry-producing shrubs scats from the south area (P <0.01) and a higher frequency of forbs (P < 0.01) in the north area. Site characteristics differed between stands with and without bear damage (P <0.01). Forest stands with bear damage (n = 33) had a lower density of trees >40 cm dbh (P < 0.01), lower total basal area (P < 0.01), occurred on less steep slopes (P < 0.01), and differed by aspect (cosine[aspect]: P < 0.01) compared to forest stands without bear damage (n = 47). Most damage occurs during spring, a season frequently associated with nutritionally poor foods for bears. This is also when carbohydrate production peaks in conifers and cambial zones have the most mass. Stands with prominent damage resemble continuous patchy habitats. Clustered food items appear to be efficiently located and exploited in continuous patchy habitats, even if foragers can only poorly estimate resource distribution. Cambium-feeding may be an energetically viable option for some bears. We recommend altering forest structure in stands vulnerable to bear damage and providing patches of nutritious bear foods as a test to decrease bear damage by reducing the foraging efficiency of bears feeding on cambium.


NOYCE, K.V. & GARSHELIS, D. 1998. SPRING WEIGHT CHANGES IN BLACK BEARS IN NORTHCENTRAL MINNESOTA: THE NEGATIVE FORAGING PERIOD REVISITED. Ursus, 10, 521-531.

Abstract: The term "negative foraging period" has been used to describe the time between the emergence of black bears (Ursus americanus) from their dens and the ripening of fleshy fruits in summer; the implication is that spring foods lack adequate energy for bears to gain or even maintain weight. Few biologists, however, have examined data on weight changes to determine if the concept applied to the bears they studied. We investigated age and sex-specific weight changes of black bears in northcentral Minnesota between denning and early July. Weights were obtained from bears trapped (n = 350) or handled at dens (n = 270) during 1981-89. Weights of 1- to 2-year-old males and females rose from late winter (Feb-Mar) to late spring (May-early Jun) and again from late spring to early summer (early Jun-mid-Jul), with gains averaging 8-14 kg over the period. Bones (head length) of young bears also grew during spring, although chest girth decreased, indicating loss of fat. Mean weights of 4- and 5-year-old males increased 21 and 10 kg, respectively, from winter to late spring, but decreased 20 and 25 kg between late spring and early summer. Only males 6 years old lost weight during both periods ( = 16 kg). Behavioral and physiological changes associated with breeding, including increased testosterone, increased activity, and decreased feeding, probably explained most weight loss in breeding-age males. In females, most weight loss was associated with lactation. Lactating females either lost weight from winter to early summer (sequential weights of individuals) or showed no significant change (mean weights of pooled sample), whereas non-lactating adult females gained weight. Despite a spring diet that is generally low in carbohydrates and fats, bears apparently make efficient use of plant protein. Past studies, with small samples and data pooled among sex-age groups, did not recognize the importance of spring as a period of growth for young bears.


O'BRIEN, S.L. & LINDZEY, F.G. 1998. AERIAL SIGHTABILITY AND CLASSIFICATION OF GRIZZLY BEARS AT MOTH AGGREGATION SITES IN THE ABSAROKA MOUNTAINS, WYOMING. Ursus, 10, 427-435.

Abstract: In 1991-92, we simultaneously observed grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) from the ground and air at moth aggregation sites east of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, to determine the ability of aerial observers to sight and classify bears. The Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team (IGBST) uses aerial surveys to count and monitor the reproductive success of unduplicated females with cubs (0.5-year olds) in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE). Much of their effort is focused in alpine talus areas because females with cubs congregate there to forage on army cutworm moths (Euxoa auxiliaris). Aerial observers sighted 92% (49/53) of all beat; 85% (22/26) of independent bears, and all (n = 10) family groups present during 6 surveys, but they misclassified 3 of 5 subadults as lone adults, 1 of 7 lone adults as a subadult, and a female with 3 yearlings as 4 lone adults. Further, aerial observers sighted 89% of all bears (n = 55) and 79% of independent bears (n = 28) that used moth sites on the days that surveys were conducted. Classification of family groups and lone bears did not significantly differ between ground and aerial counts, but further stratification of lone bears indicated significant (P = 0.03) under-representation of subadults and over-representation of lone adults from the air. Low sightability of subadults (56%) and misclassification of family groups also contributed to these errors. Aerial observers sighted and accurately classified all 5 adult females with cubs present during the aerial surveys, and no yearlings were misclassified as cubs. However, using other data collected from the ground, we found that aerial observers sighted only 82% of all females with cubs because 2 of 11 family groups observed to use study sites were not present during aerial surveys. Nevertheless, aerial sightability and classification of females with cubs and estimates of litter size at moth sites seemed reliable.


OBBARD, M.E., POND, B.A., & PERERA, A. 1998. PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF GPS COLLARS FOR ANALYSIS OF HABITAT USE AND ACTIVITY PATTERNS OF BLACK BEARS. Ursus, 10, 209-217.

Abstract: Prototype radiocollars incorporating global positioning system (GPS) receivers were attached to 8 adult female black bears (Ursus americanus) in March (5) and June-July (3) of 1994 in northern Ontario, Canada. Collars contained a 6-channel GPS receiver, an independent very high frequency (VHF) tracking beacon, an activity sensor, and a computer-memory module. The total package weighed 1.3 kg. The GPS receiver accessed the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, so accuracy of system horizontal position was expected to be 100 m (i.e., 95% of fixes will be within 100 m of true position). To test the accuracy of location estimates, an additional collar was placed at a reference location during the study period. Units were set to acquire GPS fixes at 3-hour intervals and stored latitude, longitude, time, date, fix quality (horizontal dilution of precision, [HDOPI), fix status (no fix, 2-dimensional [2D], or 3-dimensional [3D] fix), and activity count information in a memory module. Projected life of the unit was 4.5 months with storage capacity for a minimum of 1,000 records. One collar malfunctioned, 1 collar was not recovered, and 2 bears died of natural causes before significant data were acquired, but 4 collars successfully acquired data from 15 June to 13 August 1994. Two collars were recovered from live-trapped bears in September 1994, and 2 were recovered during routine den visits in March 1995. There were no detectable collar-induced injuries, nor any detectable difference in behavior compared to bears with conven