Table of Contents Ursus 3           

Bacon, Ellis S. and Burghardt, Gordon M. Ingestive behaviors of the american black bear. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 13-25 ->

Bacon, Ellis S. and Burghardt, Gordon M. Learning and color discrimination in the american black bear. 1974. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 27-36 ->

Beeman, Larry E. and Pelton, Michael R. Homing of black bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. 1974. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 87-95 ->

Belikov, S. E. Behavioral aspects of the polar bear, Ursus maritimus. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 37-40 ->

Craighead, Frank C. Jr. Grizzly bear ranges and movement as determined by radiotracking. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 97-109

Craighead, John J., Craighead, Frank C. Jr., and Sumner, Jay. Reproductive cycles and rates in the grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis, of the Yellowstone Ecosystem. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage.  3, 337-356 ->

Craighead, John J., Varney, J. R., Craighead, F. C., and Sumner, J. S. Telemetry experiments with a hibernating black bear. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 357-371. 76.

Dean, Frederick C. Aspects of grizzly bear population ecology in Mount McKinley National Park. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 111-119 ->

Egbert, Allan L. and Stokes, Allen W. The social behaviour of brown bears on an Alaskan salmon stream. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 41-56 ->

Elgmork, Kåre. A remnant brown bear population in southern Norway and problems of its conservation. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 281-297 ->

Folk, G. Edgar Jr., Larson, Anna, and Folk, Mary. Physiology of hibernating bears. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 373-380 ->

Glenn, L. P., Lentfer, J. W., Faro, J. B., and Miller, L. H. Reproductive biology of female brown bears, (Ursus arctos), McNeil River, Alaska. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 381-390 ->

Grachev, Yu. A. Distribution and quantity of brown bears in Kazakhstan. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 299-300 ->

Greer, Kenneth R. Managing Montana's grizzlies for the grizzlies! Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 177-189

Herrero, Stephen. Conflicts between man and grizzly bears in the national parks of North America. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 121-145 ->

Jonkel, Charles, Stirling, Ian, and Robertson, Richard. The popular bears of Cape Churchill. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 301-302 ->

Jordan, Robert H. Threat behavior of the black bear, (Ursus americanus). 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 57-63. 76. ->

Kaal, Mati. Ecology, protection and prospect of utilization of the brown bear in the Estonian S.S.R. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 303-306

Kemp, Gerald A. The dynamics and regulation of black bear, Ursus americanus, populations in Northern Alberta. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 191-197 ->

Larsen, Thor. Polar bear den surveys in Svalbard, 1972 and 1973. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 199-208

Lentfer, Jack W. Polar bear management in Alaska. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 209-213

Lindzey, James S., Kordek, Walter S., Matula, George J. Jr., and Piekielek, William P. The black bear in Pennsylvania--status, movements, values, and management. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 215-224

Ludlow, Jeanne C. Observations on the breeding of captive black bears, Ursus americanus. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 65-69 ->

Luque, Michael H. and Stokes, Allen W. Fishing behavior of Alaskan brown bear. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 71-78. 76. ->

Martinka, C. J. Ecological role and management of grizzly bears in Glacier National Park, Montana. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 147-156 ->

McCaffrey, Eugene R., Will, Gary B., and Bergstrom, Andrea S. Preliminary management implications for black bears, Ursus americanus, in the Catskill region of New York state as the result of an ecological study. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 235-245 ->

Miller, Robert L. and Will, Gary B. Use of M99 etorphine and antagonists to immobilize and handle black bears. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 225-234 ->

Ozeretskovskaya, N. N. and Pereverzeva, Ye. V. Clinical, epidemiological and parasitological features of the Trichinella strain (ATS). 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 391-402

Pearson, A. M. Population characteristics of the Arctic Mountain grizzly bear. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 247-260 ->

Pelton, Michael R., Scott, Charles D., and Burghardt, Gordon M. Attitudes and opinions of persons experiencing property damage and/or injury by black bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 157-167

Pruitt, Cheryl H. Play and agonistic behavior in captive black bears. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 79-86

Reynolds, Harry V., Curatolo, James A., and Quimby, Roland. Denning ecology of grizzly bears in northeastern Alaska. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 403-409

Rogers, Lynn L., Kuehn, David W., Erickson, Albert W., Harger, Elsworth M., Verme, Louis J., and Ozoga, John J. Characteristics and management of black bears that feed in garbage dumps, campgrounds or residential areas. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 169-175 ->

Rogers, Lynn L. and Rogers, Susanne M. Parasites of bears: a review. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 411-430 ->

Rogers, Lynn L., Stowe, Clarence M., and Erickson, Albert W. Succinylcholine chloride immobilization of black bears. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 431-446 ->

Roth, H. U. Status of the last brown bears of the Alps in Trentino, Italy. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 307-308 ->

Sharafutdinov, I. Yu. and Korotkov, A. M. On the ecology of brown bear in the southern Urals. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 309-311

Slobodyan, A. A. The European brown bear in the Carpathians. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 313-319

Uspensky, S. M. and Belikov, S. E. Research on the polar bear in the USSR. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 321-323

Ustinov, S. K. The brown bear on Baikal:  a few features of vital activities. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 325-326

Varney, Joel R., Craighead, John J., and Sumner, Jay S. An evaluation of the ERTS-1 satellite imagery for grizzly bear habitat analysis. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 261-273 ->

Vereschagin, N. K. The brown bear in Eurasia, particularly the Soviet Union. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 327-335

Wilson, Don E. Cranial variation in polar bears. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 447-453

Worley, David E., Fox, J. Carl, Winters, John B., Jacobson, Richard H., and Greer, Kenneth R. Helminth and arthropod parasites of grizzly and black bears in Montana and adjacent areas. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 455-464

Zavatsky, B. P. The use of the skull in age determination of brown bears. 1974. International Conference Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 275-279

Abstracts

Bacon, Ellis S. and Burghardt, Gordon M. Ingestive behaviors of the American black bear. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 13-25

Abstract: DISCUSSION - p. 24 - Black bears are particularly clean and even delicate feeders.  Although many foods are eaten in their entirety (e.g. apples, pears, whole fish), very little debris is ingested as they consume acorns, blackberries and grass.  Most debris is either spat out or avoided.  These results agree with observations on the black bear in Virginia (Cottam et al. 1939).
     Orientation to food items appears to involve both sight and smell, both of which are well developed and efficiently integrated.  The apparently frequent use of sight suggests the presence of a high degree of visual acuity and pattern discrimination.  While the captive conditions undoubtedly affected the intensity and duration of the ingestive behaviors seen here, we feel that the topography and sequencing are probably quite normal.  Since observations of wild black bears eating native food are scarce, it is hoped that other investigators will take advantage of chance or unusual situations to film and record observations in order to evaluate further and to extend these results.  Detailed comparison of the topography of feeding behaviors with other bear species and mammals in general is also of importance.   

Bacon, Ellis S. and Burghardt, Gordon M. Learning and color discrimination in the American black bear. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 27-36

Abstract: DISCUSSION - pp. 31-35 - The results indicate that the bears could discriminate between hues.  The blue-gray and green-gray discriminations by themselves illustrate the presence of more than a monochromatic system.  Unfortunately, the exact type of chromatic mechanisms cannot be postulated from the available data.  Muntz and Cronly-Dillon (1966) trained goldfish (Carrasius auratus) to discriminate successfully red-green, green-red, blue-green, green-blue, blue-red, and red-blue color pairs.  They concluded the fish were trichromatic since at least three types of photoreceptors with different spectral sensitivities were required to successfully discriminate the six color pairs.  Yager and Jameson (1968), however, argue that with Muntz's data, a deuteranope could make similar discrimination.  The success of the discriminations did not necessarily require a trichromatic system.  This critique appears to apply to our study; therefore, no assumptions are made concerning trichromaticity in the black bear.
     Nevertheless, hue discrimination was clear and, contrary to Courtier (1954), did not depend on 'bright' colors.  The task acquisition was very rapid and the discriminations were consistently correct.  The bears learned more rapidly than Grether's (1940) chimpanzees, and as fast as the dogs used by Rosengren (1969).  This positive performance by the bears indicates that hue discrimination is most likely a strong and widely used component of the bear's visual perception.
     The existence of color vision in the black bear belies some generalizations in recent literature concerning mammalian visual capacities, as does our work on form discrimination in black bears (Bacon 1973; see also Burghardt 1975).  The foraging behavior of black bears supports our findings on their color vision.  Black bears appear to use their eyesight during ingestive behaviors much more than previously supposed.  The food items consumed indicate that the bear simply does not just smell these objects out.  Consumption of small insects, berries, and scattered ground foods such as acorns, may require good visual acuity.  A highly developed color sense would also aid in such discriminations.
     The black bear has been assumed to be primarily nocturnal.  Anatomical evidence for this lies in the well developed tapetum lucidum of the eye. However, the observed feeding behaviors indicate that the bear, in natural situations, may feed during the light or crepuscular hours of the day, and relies greatly on sight to locate and obtain food. A monochromatic retina would appear insufficient to cope with the needs of an animal that feeds by day on often small and scattered objects.  In summary, the results show that black bears can be easily and quickly trained to perform learned hue discriminations.   

Beeman, Larry E. and Pelton, Michael R. Homing of black bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 87-95

Abstract: From 1967 to 1974, 76 nuisance black bears were moved to other parts of the Park.  Most nuisance bears were males (87 percent).  Bears less than 4.5 years old comprised 20 percent of the nuisance animals.  There was no significant difference between the ability of inexperienced adults and inexperienced juveniles to home.  Within the range of distances that bears were moved (5.8 to 64.8 km), there was a significant difference between homing and distance transplanted, i.e. fewer homing with greater distances moved.
     Experienced male bears were significantly more likely to home and homed in less time than inexperienced males.  Bears released on the periphery of the Park were significantly less likely to home than bears released in the central part of the Park.
     Bears seem to be strongly motivated to home.  A bear's home range probably provides psychic needs as well as physical ones.  They likely find their way by random wanderings combined with learning and memory of areas previously traversed.  Other means of navigation were not tested in this study.
     Creating conditions that reduce the amount of unnatural food available to bears is probably the most basic management tool for eliminating the transformation of 'wild' bears to nuisance animals.  Selection of release sites is also an important consideration in handling nuisance bears.     

Belikov, S. E. Behavioral aspects of the polar bear, Ursus maritimus. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 37-40

Abstract: DISCUSSION - pp. 39-40 - Behavior of pregnant and lactating polar bears can markedly change under influence of a 'disturbance factor.'  Disturbance is especially critical in the fall period when pregnant females begin to den, for, as a rule, females will abandon their dens prematurely if disturbed.
     Protective measures for polar bear denning areas must first provide for the creation of a 'zone of peace' where visits of people are limited as much as possible.
     The interrelations of pregnant or lactating females and relationships of the latter with foster cubs evolved primarily from the laws of survival and success of the species as a whole.  In this connection, it is fully understandable that lactating females will accept orphan cubs who for some reason have lost their mother. However, whether a single female can rear four cubs at one time is not yet known.  

Craighead, John J., Craighead, Frank C. Jr., and Sumner, Jay. Reproductive cycles and rates in the grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis, of the Yellowstone Ecosystem. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  3, 337-356

Abstract: DISCUSSION - p. 355 - We have shown that reproductive parameters of Yellowstone grizzlies are highly variable.  Ages at first pregnancy ranged from 4.5 to 8.5 years, reproductive cycles from 2 to 7 years, litters from 1 to 4 cubs, and reproductive rates from 0.286 to 1.500 for the individual females studied.  Presumably, flexibility of these biological parameters should enable the species to adjust to environmental factors that affect the population favorably or unfavorably.  However, for a long-lived species exhibiting delayed maturity these compensatory reproductive processes (increases in litter size, decreases in length of reproductive cycle, and/or higher survivorship rates for sub-adult bears) would act slowly.  On the other hand, population regulating mechanisms (infanticides from aggressive males and hormonal activity regulating the intervals between estrus in females) are factors that can offset compensatory processes.  Infanticide was low (eight records).  The great variability in the sequences of reproductive cycles could be important in regulating reproduction, but it will be difficult to draw conclusions from this information until similar data are obtained from other populations and norms established.
     The grizzly bear is at the top of its food chain, and under primitive conditions has had few natural enemies, partially explaining the relatively low reproductive rate.  In modern times, man has developed the capability of inflicting rapid and heavy mortality.  There is no scientific evidence that the grizzly bear has the capacity to compensate for the high mortality rates inflicted by man.  On the contrary, Craighead et al. (1974) have shown that the Yellowstone grizzly cannot sustain a high death rate for even a short period of time without critically lowering the population level.  Any abnormal mortality such as undue control by man or excessive hunting, or both, should be viewed with concern because it can cause a rapid irreversible decline in population size.  The historic decline of the grizzly bear in the western United States has probably resulted from the species' low reproductive rate and its inability to cope with man-induced mortality and drastic habitat changes.  The grizzly has been able to survive only in large national parks and national forest wilderness areas where spacious habitats have, until recently, insulated the species from excessive mortality.  If threatened with high mortality rates, the grizzly will face extinction just as surely as it did in California some 50 years ago.
     Where mortality rates are known to be high (Yellowstone ecosystem) or are of uncertain status (Bob Marshall-Scapegoat Wilderness), we believe it would be prudent for game managers to apply the long-term average reproductive rates presented in this paper.  To assume higher rates for other populations, in the absence of any other long-term scientific evidence, is to take unjustifiable risks with a threatened species. 

Dean, Frederick C. Aspects of grizzly bear population ecology in Mount McKinley National Park. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 111-119

Abstract: DISCUSSION - pp.118-119 - The patterns and amount of human use of Mount McKinley National Park have changed drastically over the past 18 years.  Prior to 1959, the only way to get a vehicle to the Park was to ship it on the Alaska Railroad.  Perhaps three or four cars per day entered the Park and many visitors stayed several days or even several weeks.  There was very little use of the country more than 2 km from the road.  In 1959, the Denali Highway was connected to the Park road and traffic began a steady slow increase.  Most visitors still arrived by train and the hotel at the railroad station at the east end of the Park has operated bus tours for many years, using up to four or more large buses depending on demand.  The first summer with the new highway between Anchorage and Fairbanks open was 1972; the major portion of the traffic between those cities began to flow through the eastern end of the Park.  Park visitation began to increase very rapidly.  'Backcountry' use figures illustrate the general increase in visits to the Park and dramatically highlight the shift in use pattern.  In 1972, there were approximately 4,500 person-nights spent in the 'backcountry'; this figure jumped to over 12,000 in 1973.  The potential for bear-human contacts is increasing rapidly as increasing numbers of visitors arrive and as a larger proportion of the visitors hike and camp off the road.  Human injuries are increasing in frequency.
     Hunting of grizzlies in the area surrounding the Park has been a rather long standing practice.  The area immediately east of the Park supports a resident population of grizzlies that can probably sustain regular hunting with a very low likelihood of significant effect on the Park's populations.  North of the Park the habitat appears less suitable for grizzlies, and there seems to be much lower probability that a substantial harvest can be supported without repeated recruitment from the protected population.  The long narrow nature of the present Park makes the journey from the Alaska Range past the north boundary well within the range of possibility for a bear.  The number of grizzly bears killed near the Park as recorded by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game are: 1969-9, 1970-9, and 1971-41.  For the 3 years combined, the cumulative percent of the kill included in the above figures was: within 1.6 km of the Park boundary, 6.8 %; 3.2 km, 30.2%; 6.4 km, 46.5%: 16 km, 57.6%; 32 km, 75%.  We hope to determine the source of the animals being taken in this boundary strip and any effects that such hunting may have on the Park population.  This is an area where the National Park Service and Alaska Department of Fish and Game may need to engage in cooperative management.
     The third major management problem currently facing the managers of Mount McKinley National Park results from the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act which provides for possible extensions of the boundaries of the Park.  The National Park Service collected public reaction to the original proposals and presented a final impact statement late in 1976.  One possibility is extending the boundary to the north to include areas considered by many to be critical winter range for moose, wolves and other Park animals.  Some of these lands may be used by grizzlies during early spring and late fall.  The potential addition would certainly provide considerable buffering from hunting since the proposed boundary is 32 km north of the present one in the eastern half of the Park.  The state of Alaska has selected land adjacent to the eastern one quarter of the north boundary and several cabin sites have been leased by private individuals.  This area constitutes a major weakness in any attempt to contain the core of the Park's large mammal populations in the present or proposed boundaries.     

Egbert, Allan L. and Stokes, Allen W. The social behaviour of brown bears on an Alaskan salmon stream. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 41-56

Abstract: DISCUSSION - pp. 54-55 - Recent comparative studies on the social behaviour of some species of Canidae indicate solitary forms have a smaller, less complex array of close-contact visual social signals than the gregarious species (Kleiman 1967; Fox 1970).  These results suggested social species have evolved communication repertoires to minimize aggression among group members by the substitution of ritualized behaviour for actual fighting.  Brown bears seem to fit this pattern in that being solitary they do not have a wide assortment of visual signals in comparison to other carnivores.  'Submission' postures, for example, are lacking; the nearest analogous behaviour in brown bears is similar (perhaps homologous) to the 'defensive threat' Leyhausen (1956) described for felids.  Bears further lack the dramatic forms of 'weapons threat' (Geist 1971) typical of many other carnivore species (e.g. retraction of the lips to expose the canines).  The small tail of bears precludes its value as a signaling device (Stonorov & Stokes 1972).
     Yet despite retaining conservative patterns of social behaviour, most bears accommodated easily to conspecific proximity at McNeil Falls. The greatest changes in behaviour occurred among adolescents and sub-adults.  Adults of both sexes were neither as wary at the onset of the fishing season nor did they habituate to the same extent as younger animals.  Whereas non-agonistic relationships actually developed and persisted between some adolescent males, the behaviour of adults changed only by degree in that they tolerated closer proximity, with neither a concomitant increase in high-intensity threats nor actual fighting.  Low-intensity aggression (head-low threats) by all bears gradually increases as distances declined and reflected an increasing unwillingness on the part of interacting bears to give way.  Bears became progressively less likely to initiate encounters with animals that were appreciably higher is social status; in 1973, adolescent males initiated only 23 percent (24 of 103) of their encounters with the highly aggressive and more dominant females with young.  While there was no group integration and coordination typical of social carnivores, and while individual relationships were flexible, the sum of these factors resulted in formation of a social organization that was relatively stable.  The presumed relationship between the social organization of a species and complexity and quantity of close-contact social signals has been questioned by Kleiman & Eisenberg (1973).  They suggest that information value of signals may be as important or more so than complexity or number, and that the context of an interaction may carry considerable information as well.
     Intensity of brown bear aggression was strongly related to salmon abundance.  Formation of a stable brown bear social system did not result in a more efficient exploitation of salmon, but rather salmon abundance determined in large part the degree of social stability.  A decline in salmon numbers was reflected by an immediate increase in intolerance among the bears.  There is evidence that lions (Panthera leo), a gregarious species, also show significant increases in aggression when food becomes scarce (Shaller 1972; Kleiman & Eisenberg 1973).
     There is growing evidence that killing and cannibalism may be common among bears (Larsen et al. 1972).  Bears responsible in eye-witness accounts are generally described as large or are known to be adult males. The wariness most bears retain for large males at McNeil River indicates they are perceived as a serious threat.  Bears in the young age classes and sows with young are most wary of males, but even oestrous females reflect this pattern, seeming more receptive to sexually-mature, but relatively small, adolescent males than to the big adults.  Regulation of black bear populations is related to mortality in young age clases that is induced by adult males (Kemp, this volume, Paper 17). Circumstantial evidence suggests the same may be true for brown bears.

Elgmork, Kåre. A remnant brown bear population in southern Norway and problems of its conservation. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 281-297

Abstract: Except for one small isolated population the brown bears in Norway, Ursus arctos arctos L., consisting of probably less than 25-50 individuals, are connected with populations in neighbouring countries.  The isolated population is situated in a restricted area less than 100 km to the north-west of Oslo in a rugged forest-alpine area which has been under increasing pressure from human activities, mainly forestry and tourism.
     The population and its habitat have been under observation since 1949.  There is a clear tendency towards a gradual decrease in numbers and a shift in distribution.  Reproduction has taken place, but was evidently reduced to a very low frequency, if any, in the 1970s.
     Direct depletion by hunting has been insignificant.  The deterioration of the habitat caused by human activities is most likely the main reason for the reduction.
     A plan for the conservation of this bear population was proposed in 1966, but so far few steps have been taken to preserve the bears and its habitat. 

Folk, G. Edgar Jr., Larson, Anna, and Folk, Mary. Physiology of hibernating bears. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 373-380

Abstract: It has been an accepted premise by some biologists that the three species of North American bears (polar, black, and grizzly) do not experience mammalian hibernation.  The conclusion of this paper, based upon an eight-year study of bears, is exactly the opposite.  We believe that the hibernation observed in bears is an example which in the evolutionary sense is more perfected than that of small mammals; furthermore bears maintain their modified state for a much longer period than is the case with any other mammal.

Glenn, L. P., Lentfer, J. W., Faro, J. B., and Miller, L. H. Reproductive biology of female brown bears, (Ursus arctos), McNeil River, Alaska. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 381-390

Abstract: The Alaska Department of Fish and Game marked 21 female brown bears at McNeil River on the upper Alaska Peninsula to obtain life history information.  Data were obtained in July and August in most years from 1963 through 1976.  Some females experienced first estrus at 3.5 years, but did not conceive until older.  First successful breeding occurred most commonly at 4.5 years.  The oldest McNeil River female known to produce cubs conceived when 14.5 years old.  The normal interval between litters was 3 years.  Litters contained 1-4 young.  Mean size of 41 litters of cubs was 2.1 and of 69 litters 1.5 and 2.5 years old was 1.8.

Grachev, Yu. A. Distribution and quantity of brown bears in Kazakhstan. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 299-300

Abstract: EDITED DISCUSSION - pp. 299-300 - The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is found throughout the territory of Kazakhstan to the Tien Shan border along the ridges of the Ugam, Pskem, Kirgiz, Talaz Alatau, Zailiy Alatau, Kungey Alatau, Ter Alatau, Ketmen, Dzhungar Alatau, Saure, Tarbagataye and Southern Latay regions.  At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, the bear was established in pine forests of the Kazakh foothills and piney ravines of Northern Kazakhstan where they are now absent.
     We counted bears from 1971-1973.  The counting method was based on visual observations (binoculars) in the early morning and in the hours just before sunset-the times at which they are most active during the daylight hours.  The forest mass in the mountains is rarely uniform; it exists as islands, bands, or very much more thinly on the slopes of ravines which can be sufficiently well observed from an opposite side.  In thick areas, where observation is difficult, we recorded signs of bear activity-remains of meals, excrement, etc.  The bears were counted in well-defined territories during the course of several days.  Data on their population density was extrapolated afterwards for mixed forest and mountain territories.
     According to data for southern Altay, in a forest area of 1,780,000 ha we counted about 440 bears (an average of 0.25/1000 ha); in the Western Tarbagatay (480,000 ha)-105 bears (0.22/1000 ha); in the Dzhungar Alatau (833,600 ha-314 bears (0.37/1000 ha); and in the Kungey Alatau (100,800 ha)-5 bears (0.04/1000 ha).  In the Zailiysk Alatau territory bears were rarities-largely confined to Alma-Ata forest reserve (valleys of the rivers Talgar and Issyk).  In the western part of this range and the Kirgiz Alatau bears were also few in number.  Bears are common in the territory of the Aksu-Dzhubagli forest reserve and also along the Ugama, Pskem and Chatkal'sk ridges.  In all, the mountains of Kazakhstan contain about 900-1000 bears.  In general, numbers are highest in regions remote from human settlement.  In comparison with mixed regions, the number of bears is markedly higher in the Southern Altay and Dzhungar Alatau.  In the Southern Altay this bear is plentiful in regions lying east of Lake Markakol', the valleys of the rivers Chernaya and Belaya Bepel', Yzaovaya, Kurtynskaya, and in the Dzhungara Alatau-on the northern forested slopes of the ridges and basins of the rivers Tentek, Baskanov and Aganakta.  Here we often observed 4-6 bears per day, and on some days up to 10 solitary bears and females with cubs.
     At present, bears are encountered rarely in the Ketmen, Kungey Alatau, or Terskaya Alatau, the fields of which have been used intensively to graze cattle for the last 20 years.  Lumbering and construction activity has also driven the bears away.  The land area is controlled and poaching is common.     

Herrero, Stephen. Conflicts between man and grizzly bears in the national parks of North America. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 121-145

Abstract: During the period 1970-73, twenty-three persons were injured by grizzly bears in the national parks of North America.  Persons were hiking or riding in backcountry prior to 14 (61%) injuries; were camping in backcountry prior to 3 (13%) injuries, and were camping in a developed area prior to 4 (17%) injuries.  Two (9%) injuries were preceded by provocation of the attacking bear.
     Females bears with cubs were the most dangerous age/sex class of grizzly and responsible for a minimum of 17 (74.9%) of all injuries.  Most injuries involved sudden surprise of the female at close range.
     Very old grizzlies were another age class disproportionately involved in incidents with man.  Careful monitoring is recommended for difficult bears from this age segment.
     Examination of the current management programme in Glacier National Park, U.S.A., suggests that management strategies exist which can both encourage the long-term survival of free-ranging grizzly populations and also provide park visitors with a high degree of safety regarding females with cubs, as well as other age/sex classes.
     Ways of avoiding attack by grizzly bear point to a joint responsibility of park managers and park visitors.  Circumstances which preceded aggressive encounters which did not result in human injury are discussed.  In the event of actual attack, especially after sudden surprise of a female with cubs, data suggest that playing dead can help to decrease the intensity of the attack.
     Garbage and human food disposal continues to be a problem, though in most parks the situation was improved.  Grizzlies who forage on human food or garbage in close proximity to people become habituated to man and also more dangerous to visitors.
     The effectiveness of management programmes is assessed with respect to human safety and grizzly bear preservation for relevant North American national parks.  Human safety is being adequately provided for in many and the remaining problem areas which can be made safer by improved management are identified.  However, several park grizzly bear populations appear to be headed for elimination during the next 50 years unless effective regional management plans are adopted soon.
     The grizzly bear is worth disproportionate study emphasis compared to other animal species in national parks because it uniquely stimulates human imagination and thought, and can help man relate meaningfully to his own genetic heritage and to natural environments.  The grizzly is a wilderness indicator species whose protection encourages survival of many other species and their wild habitat.  

Jonkel, Charles, Stirling, Ian, and Robertson, Richard. The popular bears of Cape Churchill. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 301-302

ABSTRACT  ONLY - Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) have been abundant along the Manitoba coast of Hudson Bay throughout historic times, and apparently this species contributed considerably to the economy of coastal native peoples within and north of the treeline.  The closure of the York Factory settlement at the mouth of the Nelson River in 1957, the organization of Registered Traplines in Manitoba during the early 1950s, and the concurrent cessatin of military manoeuvres at Ft. Churchill, all provided increased protection and decreased killing of the bears.
     Apparently in response to this, as well as to a decrease in the hunting of ringed seals (Phoca hispida)-the main food supply of polar bears-, the number of bears on Cape Churchill rose rapidly during the 1960s.  Little was known of their biology and abundance when each autumn they began to appear in large numbers within the four settlements near the mouth of the Churchill River.  A situation rapidly developed wherein law enforcement officers and residents were required to kill 10 to 15 bears annually to protect themselves.
     During 1966 to 1968 one or two persons were attacked or killed each year, workers required guards and transportation from door to door when ending night shifts during October to December, and a strong dislike for the bears precipitated the tormenting or shooting of bears with small calibre rifles.  R.C.M. Police officers were frequently replaced on the force, and therefore had little experience in controlling the bears.
     In 1966, a study of the problem and of the Cape Churchill bears was begun by the Canadian Wildlife Service.  In 1966 and in 1969, two of the garbage dumps where the bears concentrated were closed down on the basis of this research and on experience with other species of bears elsewhere. A public education project was begun to inform people about ways to avoid conflict with the bears, and various attempts at fencing, burning of garbage and improving the garbage pickups were made.
     In 1969, the provincial government assigned Game Management Officers to the area to provide a 24 hour patrol, culvert traps were sent to Churchill for catching and shipping problem bears, and the Federal Department of Public Works began burying the garbage with sand.  Funds were allocated for the construction of an incinerator, but work on it did not begin.
     During 1970 through 1973, the patrols by game officers kept an uneasy control over the bears, and research confirmed emphatically that the existence of the garbage dumps contributed substantially to the problem of the polar bears staying in or near the settlements.  The Game Officers determined in 1971 that they had little recourse but kill a large number of problem bears addicted from year to year to the garbage dumps.  However, a temporarily arranged air lift of 24 problem bears to 250 km southeast of Churchill in that year by a private organization, and an early freeze up of Hudson Bay in 1972 and 1973, helped the officers to control the bears.
     Completion of an incinerator late in 1973, promised to control the problem in the future, but adjustment problems, associated with bears accustomed to returning to Churchill each autumn, the storage of bait by resident trappers, and garbage pickups, are expected.  A complete biological report on the Cape Churchill bears is now in preparation, and this history of the bears and the bear problems will form the introduction to it.    

Jordan, Robert H. Threat behavior of the black bear, (Ursus americanus). 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 57-63. 76.

Abstract: EDITED DISCUSSION - p. 61 - Simple threats, both offensive and defensive, towards humans and other bears were remarkably similar.  Threats by captive bears (including hand-reared animals) were identical to those of wild bears at least in terms of the elements present, if not in rate.  Females and males threatened in the same way, although my sample of male threat behavior was too small to be certain of this.

An offensive threat by an adult might occur in the following sequence:

(1)  Sniffing the air or objects with unfamiliar odors.
(2)  Looking directly at the individual to be threatened (heavy panting  may occur before or during looking directly).
(3)  Charging at the individual or veering slightly into bushes or trees (sometimes panting while charging) and stopping suddenly.
(4)  A the moment of stopping, slapping one or both feet down on the ground or to the side against any object such as a tree or bush which would produce a sudden surprising sound.  Concurrent with the slap, air is expelled from the mouth with a startling rush (i.e. huffing).  (The charging bear may stand on its hind feet as it stops and slaps; or the bear may not charge at all but simply slap or stand up in place and slap).
(5)  Opening and closing the mouth rapidly to produce a series of loud pops (i.e. jaw-popping).
(6)  Turning the head away and averting the eyes, often accompanied by licking the lips and panting.
(7)  Standing, walking, or running away.
     Depending on the intensity of the threat, the types of elements that occur, the repetition of elements within the sequence and, to a limited extent, the order of the elements vary.  A high intensity threat generally contains more elements and repetitions of elements than one of low intensity.  None of the elements always occurs.  However, given the occurrence of one element, the likelihood of the occurrence of the one that follows it may be very high.  For example, charging and stopping suddenly is very likely to be followed by slapping or huffing.  Detailed film analysis will be needed to characterize these behavioral sequences more clearly.      

Kemp, Gerald A. The dynamics and regulation of black bear, Ursus americanus, populations in Northern Alberta. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 191-197

Abstract: DISCUSSION - p. 197 - Population regulation is here defined simply as the dampening of numerical fluctuations by density-dependent processes.  Evidence presented in support of the hypothesized regulatory effect of adult males on the bear population is:

(1)  the population increased from 80 in the pre-manipulation period to        175 in the post-manipulation period; and

(2)  the increased recovery rate and hence possibly survival of subadults      in the post-manipulation period.

     The fact that snared subadults were killed by adult males indicates that adult males are capable, if given the opportunity, of inflicting outright mortality.  It is not suggested that this occurs in significant instances in free-ranging animals.  Whether or not directly induced mortality by adult males is significant, or whether mortality is from other causes resulting from aggressive behavior and subsequent increased dispersal of subadults, remains to be tested in 1974 and 1975.

Ludlow, Jeanne C. Observations on the breeding of captive black bears, Ursus americanus. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 65-69

Abstract: DISCUSSION - pp. 68-69 - In general the mating behavior of bears is similar in some ways to the canids (the mount and the pelvic thrusts) and in other ways to the felids (the neck bite) (Ewer 1973).  The duration of successful mounts and intromissions was about 20 to 30 minutes.  Copulation occurs while both animals are standing, and there does not appear to be a copulatory tie (as in canids, where the male and female stand for over 10 minutes in a locked position).  However, several reports state that the bear has a penis bone which maintains the joining of the pair for a relatively long time (Meyer-Holzapfel 1957).  The mating of black bears appears to be very similar to that of the brown bears (as described by Meyer-Holzapfel 1957): mating and foreplay involves licking the female's face and sex organs; actual mating lasts more than 15 minutes; copulation occurs on several successive days; and, when the female is no longer receptive, she moves away from the male.
     The breeding of two black bears filmed was successful, and two cubs were born in early February, 1976.  The gestation period was about 30 weeks.

Luque, Michael H. and Stokes, Allen W. Fishing behavior of Alaskan brown bear. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 71-78. 76.

Abstract: EDITED DISCUSSION - pp. 77-78 - A characteristic of bears at McNeil Falls was the constancy of their return throughout a season and from one season to the next.  We rarely saw a newcomer establish itself permanently in the two years of intensive study.  Those bears that did appear sporadically stayed so briefly we generally didn't learn them well enough to identify in later years.  The high intolerance between bears probably discourages newcomers.  Cubs brought to the river during the two or three years they stayed with their mother could work their way gradually into the hierarchy and into competitive fishing situations.  In general, after weaning at 2.5 years of age, cubs moved about below the falls looking for scraps of discarded fish.  Gradually they worked farther and farther into the central fishing locations, stealing fish from satiated larger bears and even doing a little fishing.  Few bears entered the fishing circle at McNeil Falls until fully mature at six or more years of age.
     This behavior is in contrast to that at smaller streams.  On the small tributaries leading into Becharov Lake farther south on the Alaska Peninsula, Derek Stonorov (pers. comm.) regularly observed younger bears fishing.  On such streams bears could spread out over much greater distances to avoid competition, the lower-status bears going farther upstream where fishing was less good.
     We observed fishing for red salmon Oncorhynchus nerka along nearby Mikfik Creek.  Fish were available over most of the stream albeit in less abundance.  On Mikfik Creek bears rarely staked out a fishing location; instead they fished for a few minutes only, then moved along the stream.  Such streams with low fish abundance are not likely to generate the strong homing tradition seen in McNeil River bears.  This sort of fishing situation would seem much easier for bears unable to with stand the heavy competition at McNeil River Falls.
     Observations in other areas on how bears fish differ in part from ours.  George Frame (pers. comm.) observed black bears Ursus americanus fishing in south-eastern Alaska.  Black bears fished by plunging into the creek, running through the water, and leaping upon a fish and capturing it with their mouth.  Since he does not give any orientation components, we cannot be sure how many techniques his bears actually used based on our classification system.  Using our orientation components there would be at least four techniques.  This is much less than our 37.  Clark (1959) also describes only one technique for brown bears fishing at Karluk Lake, Alaska.  These bears used the forepaws to pin the salmon to the bottom before grasping it with the mouth.  Frame never observed this technique.  Similarly, W. B. Sisson (pers. comm.) observed that brown bears fishing at Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge use only two techniques. In one creek where fish were emaciated, bears would capture them with just the mouth.  In other streams where fish were more lively, bears would herd fish toward shallow water and use their paws and body to capture fish.  Sisson also noted that bears would slap the water to aid in herding fish, but he never saw a fish slapped out of the water.  Bacon and Burghardt (this volume paper 1) also noted that penned black bears would slap at prey.  We never observed this behaviour at McNeil.
     In all of the above reports bears were fishing in shallow flat streams.  This lack of varied topography, in contrast to McNeil Falls, could be the reason bears used far fewer and somewhat different techniques.  Bears can chase fish in these shallow streams while at McNeil Falls they can seldom do this because of the deep water and the ease with which salmon can evade bears.
     In all these studies bears have used the forepaws, although generally at one time or another in combination with the mouth.  Eisenberg Leyhausen (1972) consider capture with the forepaws more evolutionarily advanced than use of the mouth.  This suggests that bears are not as advanced as the Felidae in which selection has favoured the use of forepaws to grasp prey.  But cats rarely fish.  If bears were to lose the ability to catch fish in the mouth, then they would not be able to capture salmon in the deep, fast-flowing water of McNeil Falls.  Bears remain generalists, not only as omnivores, but as carnivores.  The wide range of techniques they have available permits them to fish in a great variety of waters.    

Martinka, C. J. Ecological role and management of grizzly bears in Glacier National Park, Montana. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 147-156

Abstract: Colonization of western North America by modern man led to significant reduction in numbers and distribution of grizzly bears, Ursus arctos, during the 150 years (Storer & Trevis 1955).  Response has been classically evident south of Canada where widespread population declines and local extinctions have occurred.  Viable populations have persisted only in more expansive wilderness and park areas of Montana and Wyoming where remoteness and land use characteristics contribute to their protection.  National parks provide unique refugia where the natural integrity of grizzly bears can be preserved as an ecosystem component by mitigating detrimental effects of modern man.  This paper summarizes current knowledge relating to the ecological role and management of grizzly bears in Glacier National Park, Montana.  The park is administered as a natural area within which grizzlies require a spectrum of management considerations.  These may be broadly categorized as environmental requirements and relationships to park visitors.  Field studies of population biology and ecosystem relationships provide criteria for interpretation of environmental requirements within park ecosystems (Martinka 1972; 1974a).  Evaluations of management programs contribute to an understanding of relationships between grizzlies and park visitors (Martinka 1971; 1974b).

McCaffrey, Eugene R., Will, Gary B., and Bergstrom, Andrea S. Preliminary management implications for black bears, Ursus americanus, in the Catskill region of New York state as the result of an ecological study. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 235-245

Abstract: DISCUSSION - p. 244 - This paper has presented the interim findings of the Catskill Bear Study and has attempted to draw some tentative conclusions about population dynamics, population size and geographic extent.  The future of the Catskill black bear populations will depend upon future management action.  There appear to be two major courses of action which may be used for effective management:  (1) promotion of land use patterns which perpetuate wild land and minimize disturbance by man; and (2) promulgation of hunting regulations which will reduce the effect of hunting on bears if it is established that a higher population is desirable.  The negative socioeconomic qualities of bears are not currently a major problem in the Catskills, probably because of the relatively low bear population densities and restricted human development in bear range.  If bear populations are allowed to increase without suitable wild land available, bear-human conflicts are bound to increase.

Miller, Robert L. and Will, Gary B. Use of M99 etorphine and antagonists to immobilize and handle black bears. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 225-234

Abstract: DISCUSSION - pp. 232-233 - M99 is a thebaine derivative chemically related to morphine but perhaps 6,000 times as potent (Burkhart 1968) as an immobilizer and analgesic.  The mode of action of M99 is believed to involve the quantity of acetylcholine released from postganglionic elements (Dieterich 1968).  High dosages of the drug may cause a decrease in respiratory and heart rates of polar bears as well as a depression of deep body temperature due to peripheral vasodilation (Oritsland 1967).  Larsen (1971) points out that these complications may prove fatal in an arctic environment and recommends administration of the antagonist immediately after handling.  For these reasons, more recent studies requiring capture of polar bears have relied on phencyclidine hydrochloride.
     During initial use, M99 was given in the dosage recommended by the manufacturer-a dosage of .008 mg/kg body weight (.35 mg/100 lbs).  Following poor results at this dosage and at .011 mg/kg (.50 mg/100 lbs), satisfactory results were achieved at the presently employed .016 mg/kg (.72 mg/100 lbs) base rate.
     Our experiences with M99 would seem to suggest, however, that it is more efficient to give 'overdoses' initially rather than attempt to give minimum effective doses.  Underdosing may cause excitation as well as a delay in the entire handling procedure.  Mean effective dosage was .016 mg/kg for 34 bears handled with a single injection.  Because of difficulty in estimating body weights greater than 90 kg (see Miller et al. 1973), it is suggested that higher dosages, from .018 to .020 mb/kg (.8-.9 mg/100 lbs), be given when bears are judged to be of large size.  Four of five bears receiving as much or more than .020 mg/kg unintentionally during this study were immobilized without difficulty within ten minutes.  The fifth bear actually required a second dose before he could be processed.
     A major advantage of M99 over other immobilizing drugs presently in use include the ability to antagonize its effects almost immediately after processing a bear, so that the animal can be observed until safely away from the trap site.  New York's experience with M99 has indicated a very wide safety margin between effective and lethal dosages.  During this study, minimum effective dosage for bears immobilized with a single injection was .010 mg/kg, while a yearling male received the maximum single dosage of .024 mg/mg without any discernible harmful effects.  Other biologists working with M99 report non-lethal dosages up to 2.5 times the maximum dosage used in New York (M. R. Pelton, unpublished).
     Other than an observed marked decrease in breathing rate which appears typical of M99's action, no ill effects of the drug have been noted.  Of 49 handlings of bears with M99, all left the trap site immediately after regaining consciousness.  We had no further indications of drug relapses occurring.  Sixteen were subsequently recaptured at periods of five days to fourteen months later, and another fifteen were killed by hunters from one month to 38 months after their release.  Therefore, 63.3 per cent (31 of 49) of the bears handled were known to be alive at a later date.  One bear (73-35) did escape before being given the antagonist drug and no record of its fate is available.  An additional seventeen handlings have not yet resulted in recovery records (as of December, 1974).  There appears to be no reason to relate this lack of recovery data with other than normal bear activity and a relatively low success in both the trapping and hunting of Catskill bears.
     When M99 was administered at or above a dosage of .016 kg/mg in a single injection, immobilization time was rapid and the induced state of unconsciousness deep and persisting.  With the injection of the antagonist, full recovery was extremely rapid.  Although we have not had experience with phencyclidine hydrochloride, this drug does not appear to provide any advantages as an immobilizer for black bears over M99 and, in fact, one wildlife researcher reports mortalities due to its use (J. D. Henry, pers. comm.).  M99, with its antagonists, appears to be an improvement over previous handling techniques used on black bears in New York. 

Pearson, A. M. Population characteristics of the Arctic Mountain grizzly bear. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 247-260

Abstract: The Arctic Mountain grizzly bear was studied on a 3367 km² study area in the Barn Mountains of the Yukon territory during 1973 and 1976.  A seasonal change in the effect of Sernylan (phencyclidine hydrochloride) on the grizzlies was observed.  The bears fed mainly on vegetable matter which varied with the season.  Minimum home ranges of 414 km² for males and 73 km² for females were determined from radio-telemetry studies.  A minimum population density of one grizzly per 48 km² was calculated.  Preliminary information on the population parameters and dynamics are presented.  Den sites were located and described.

Rogers, Lynn L., Kuehn, David W., Erickson, Albert W., Harger, Elsworth M., Verme, Louis J., and Ozoga, John J. Characteristics and management of black bears that feed in garbage dumps, campgrounds or residential areas. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 169-175

Abstract: One hundred and twenty-six black bears were captured at garbage dumps, campgrounds or residential areas in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan during the summer of 1968.  The sex, weight and breeding condition of each were recorded and the age of each was estimated from counts of annuli in the cementum of a first premolar.  The sex ratio among cubs (59 males, N=17) did not differ significantly from a 1:1 ratio, but the sex ratio among bears 1 through 7 years of age (76% males, N=93) was significantly (P<.01) unbalanced toward males.  Conversely, females predominated (P<.05) among the relatively few bears 8 years of age or older (25% males, N=16), especially among those captured in campgrounds or residential areas (17% males, N=12).  Garbage was more abundant in dumps than in campgrounds or residential areas, and bears captured at dumps tended to be heavier than those of the same age and sex captured elsewhere.  Seven litters observed with females captured at sources of garbage ranged from 2 to 5 cubs and averaged 3.1, which is significantly (P<.01) more than the average of 1.99 cubs per litter reported for bears in Upper Michigan.  Forty-two percent of the bears (excluding cubs) captured as nuisances in campgrounds or residential areas were males less than 4 years of age.  Young males may exhibit less attachment to an area than do females or older males, so may be less likely to return after being transported away from human habitation.

Rogers, Lynn L. and Rogers, Susanne M. Parasites of bears: a review. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 411-430

Abstract: At least 77 species of parasites have been reported from bears, but there is no evidence that parasites are a common cause of mortality.  Pathological effects usually are not apparent in parasitized bears (Horstman 1949, Rausch 1955, Jonkel and Cowan 1971, Poelker and Hartwell 1973).  However, in two exceptional cases, captive bears died because helminths became located in unusual sites where they occluded passageways (Mozogovoi 1953, Rausch 1955, Poelker and Hartwell 1973).  Four heavily parasitized wild bears in poor condition have been reported (Rush 1932, Chandler 1950, Martin 1950, Jonkel and Cowan 1971), but in each case it was impossible to distinguish cause from effects, i.e. whether the poor condition was caused by parasites or whether parasites took over because the bear already was weakened.  In the latter situation, parasitism easily could lead to further deterioration of health.
     Parasites of bears from northern regions apparently are well adapted to the hibernating and fasting habits of their hosts.  Intestinal parasites that derive nourishment directly from materials ingested by the host usually pass out of the alimentary canal before hibernation begins.  Further study is needed to determine whether or not the demands of parasites that derive nourishment from blood or other body fluids are reduced while the host is hibernating.  

Rogers, Lynn L., Stowe, Clarence M., and Erickson, Albert W. Succinylcholine chloride immobilization of black bears. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 431-446

Abstract: Succinylcholine chloride, a muscle relaxant commonly used in projectile syringes, was employed in 191 immobilizations of black bears in the Upper Peninsular of Michigan during the summers of 1966 through 1968.  Dosages of 0.66 to 0.75 mg/kg were required to achieve immobilization consistently.  These dosages, which are higher than those used for bears by other workers, may have been necessary because hypertonic solutions (90 mg/cc) were used; hypotonic solutions (less than 38 mg/cc) generally were used by others.  There were twenty-three cases of respiratory paralysis or cardiac arrest.  Twenty-one (91 percent) of these cases occurred when dosages greater than 0.75 mg/kg were injected into tissue vascular enough to facilitate immobilization in less than 75 seconds.  Artificial respiration prevented suffocation, but field procedures were not available to prevent death from cardiac arrest.  The latter was produced by dosages as low as 0.53 mg/kg.  The administration of multiple injections to achieve or prolong immobilization seems particularly likely to cause myocardial injury and cardiac arrest.  The effects of succinylcholine on the heart are discussed.  The effectiveness of succinylcholine apparently is influenced by its concentration, the vascularity of the tissue into which it is injected, body temperature, and whether the bear is older or younger than about one year.

Roth, H. U. Status of the last brown bears of the Alps in Trentino, Italy. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 307-308

Abstract: Less than 1,000 years ago, brown bears, Ursus arctos L., were found throughout most of continental Europe, but today only remnant populations occur in small and isolated areas.  Although mountainous regions typically form a last stronghold for the bears, they were exterminated from the greater part of the Alps during the 1800s.  Only two small populations survived by 1900, one in the French Alps and one in the Italian Alps.  Those of the French Alps disappeared before World War ll, whereas, in Italy, one small group still remains in the Alpine province of Trentino.  These bears are extremely shy and nocturnal, so to obtain information on their status and biology we used indirect methods such as measuring tracks, counting scats and interviewing local people.
     In order to obtain an adequate coverage of the 1640 km² study area which includes the entire bear range, interviews for mapping purposes were based on a stratified sampling plan using the Communities--which also conform to hunting management units in the Trentino--as spatial strata.  A frequency was used of one interview per 10 km² community area.
     All personal observations of bears or their signs (tracks, scats) were located on a map by persons interviewed, mostly hunters.  We tried to use objective mathematical-geometrical procedures to convert the resulting 'point-maps' into 'area-maps' showing areas of different bear-use intensities.  Two maps for the periods of 1913-1966 and 1967-1970 were prepared on the basis of 654 observations.
     These maps suggest total bear range (outermost observations connected) had decreased a relatively unimportant 20 percent, but that heavily used bear-range had decreased a substantial 75 to 90 percent.  These maps and other data (calculated population indices based on sighting frequencies for sub-areas) suggest that bears actively concentrated in the northeastern corner of the Trentino bear area (Val di Non) during the 1960s.
     Tracks and direct observations provided a minimum population estimate of eight bears for 1969, including a female with two yearlings (or two-year-olds), a female with a single yearling, a female with at least one cub, and a minimum of one single bear.  A figure of about two additional single bears, which makes a total of ten animals, is probably a more realistic estimate.  Additional data from Daldoss (1973 and pers. comm., Sept. 1974) suggest a stable population since 1969.
     These bears have adapted remarkably well to this densely populated region.  They make extensive use of the partly abandoned orchards along the lower edge of the mountain forests during fall.  I have found tracks and scats as close as 50 m to an occupied farmhouse, but only very rarely are they discovered further than 25 m from the forest edge.  The local people are often unaware of these night visitors.
     Our information indicates that poaching is the primary factor causing a decline in the bear population of the Trentino.  Using the Petersen-Lincoln index as a procedure, and a list of illegal bear killings compiled independently by Marti (1969), we estimated an average of 2.2 bears killed annually from 1939, when the species was fully protected, to 1970.
     In the Cantabrian Mountains of Spain a similar situation prevailed after World War ll.  Poaching was slowly exterminating a small brown bear population.  After the establishment of a special bear reservation of 879 km² and extensive patrols by 12 game wardens, the bears increased to about 70 (Notario 1964).  It seems that similar action is necessary to save the bears of the Italian Alps. 

Varney, Joel R., Craighead, John J., and Sumner, Jay S. An evaluation of the ERTS-1 satellite imagery for grizzly bear habitat analysis. 1976. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 3, 261-273

Abstract: DISCUSSION - pp. 271-272 - The results of this preliminary investigation show that ERTS-1 multispectral scanner imagery can be of value in habitat analysis.  Useful information about grizzly habitat can be obtained with minimal cost and effort.  The authors have not had prior photointerpretation experience, so information may have been overlooked that could be obtained from the imagery.  We plan to continue evaluating this technique in ongoing programs where habitat data are needed.
     We feel that satellite imagery is most valuable at present as a supplement to, not a replacement for, field observations by personnel on the ground.  Limitations in image resolution and kinds of information that can be obtained from multispectral scanning allow errors if used alone.  The imagery can be used, however, to perform initial screening and to select these areas where field effort can be productively concentrated.  In surveying wilderness areas to locate suitable reintroduction habitat, large portions could, for example, be eliminated on the basis of the imagery alone.  Field work can then be focused on remaining locations which appear to meet minimum requirements.  Examination of satellite imagery early in a study should thus allow an effective sampling strategy to be developed to minimize field effort and overall program cost.
     Computer-assisted analysis of multispectral scanner images offers several advantages over the visual methods described in this paper, and we are investigating this technique to minimize subjective factors and reduce time required to classify larger areas.  The general approach involves displaying a 3-band color composite image of the area under investigation on a CRT screen.  The image is derived by transferring picture-element data from ERTS computer-compatible digital magnetic tapes to a buffer-storage system, which is in turn scanned to produce a periodically-refreshed color image on the  CRT.  The digital form of the image data permits a computer to be used to perform decision functions or computational algorithms upon each image element before it is displayed.  This allows a variety of operations to be performed on the image such as density slicing color enhancement, selective color display, and false-color display.  It also permits 'learning' techniques to be applied in which a small portion of the image, for which ground truth is available, can be analyzed by the computer; similar areas in the remaining scene are then identified and displayed as one color on the CRT.  This is  powerful method for developing land classification maps.  The computer-enhanced images and type maps can then be compared with vegetation type maps obtained by selective ground sampling to validate the classifications.
     Using techniques described, we could rapidly survey the three largest ecosystems in the western United States (Yellowstone, Selway-Bitterroot and Bob Marshall) to classify favorable grizzly habitat, to assist in making more accurate estimates of the present grizzly population and to locate the most promising sites for reintroduction.  Such information is badly needed and could be obtained with comparatively modest funding.  Together with extensive data on grizzly food habits, movements, ranges and bear ecology that has already been gathered, such a survey could provide several western states the means to evaluate hunting regulations and harvest, and better data than is now available for making management and land use decisions.
     Satellite remote sensing methods are a valuable addition to the tools of the wildlife researcher and manager.  The usefulness of ERTS-1 imagery will expand in the near future as other researchers develop analysis methods to increase types and quality of data abtained from the images.  This should result in additional techniques useful in habitat analysis.  Remote sensing will become increasingly valuable as equipment with improved resolution and additional spectral bands becomes available on future satellites.