Ursus is the official scientific publication of the International Association for Bear Research and Management (IBA).

Table of Contents Ursus 4

Alt, Gary L., Matula, George J. Jr., Alt, Floyd W., and Lindzey, James S. Dynamics of home range and movements of adult black bears in northeastern Pennsylvania. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 131-136 ->

Atwell, Gerry, Boone, Daniel L., Gustafson, Jack, and Berns, Vernon D. Brown bear summer use of alpine habitat on the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 297-305 ->

Azuma, Shigeru and Torii, Harumi. Impact of human activities on survival of the Japanese black bear. 1980. International Conf. of Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 71-79 ->

Bacon, Ellis S. Curiosity in the American black bear. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 153-157 ->

Ball, Ronald E. Time-lapse cameras as an aid in studying grizzly bears in northwest Wyoming. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 331-335 ->

Beecham, John. Some population characteristics of two black bear populations in Idaho. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 201-204 ->

Beeman, Larry E. and Pelton, Michael R. Seasonal foods and feeding ecology of black bears in the Smoky Mountains. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 141-147 ->

Belikov, S. E. Distribution and structure of dens of female polar bears in Wrangel Island. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 117 ->

Berns, Vernon D., Atwell, Gerry C., and Boone, Daniel L. Brown bear movements and habitat use at Karluk Lake, Kodiak Island. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 293-296 ->

Bjärvall, Anders. The brown bear in Sweden--distribution, abundance, and management . 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 255-257 ->

Buchalczyk, Tadeusz. The brown bear in Poland. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 229-232 ->

Bunnell, F. L. Tait D. E. N. Bears in models and in reality--implications to management. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 15-23 ->

Chester, James M. Factors influencing human-grizzly bear interactions in a backcountry setting. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 351-357 ->

Clarke, Stephen H., O'Pezio, John, and Hackford, Charles. Fostering black bear cubs in the wild. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 163-166 ->

Dean, Frederick C. and Tracy, Diane M. The bear bibliograpy project. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 13-14 ->

Folk, G. Edgar Jr., Hunt, Jill M., and Folk, Mary A. Further evidence for hibernation of bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 43-47 ->

Furubayashi, Kengo, Hirai, Kenichi, Ikeda, Koichi, and Mizuguchi, Tamio. Relationships between occurrence of bear damage and clearcutting in central Honshu, Japan. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 81-84 ->

Glenn, Leland P. Morphometric characteristics of brown bears on the central Alaska Peninsula. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 313-319 ->

Glenn, Leland P. and Miller, Leo H. Seasonal movements of an Alaska Peninsula brown bear population. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 307-312 ->

Hamilton, Robert J. and Marchinton, R. Larry. Denning and related activities of black bears in the coastal plain of North Carolina. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 121-126 ->

Hanai, Masamitsu. Population characteristics of the Japanese black bear in Hakusan National Park, Japan. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 63-66 ->

Harding, Lee and Nagy, John A. Responses of grizzly bears to hydrocarbon exploration on Richards Island, Northwest Territories, Canada. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 277-280 ->

Harms, Dale R. Black bear management in Yosemite National Park. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 205-212 ->

Hensel, Richard J. and Sorensen, Fred E. Age determination of live polar bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 93-100 ->

Hugie, Roy D. Species planning: an approach to black bear management and research in Maine. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 127-129 ->

Jacobsen, Robert D. Legal aspects of critical habitat determinations. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 5-8 ->

Johnson, Loyal. Brown bear management in southeastern Alaska. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 263-270 ->

Jonkel, Charles, Husby, Peter, Russel, Richard, and Beecham, John. The reintroduction of orphaned grizzly bear cubs into the wild. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 369-372 ->

Joslin, Gayle and Kapler, Jane. A computerized system for recording and recalling grizzly bear reports. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 33-36 ->

Judd, Steven L. and Knight, Richard R. Movements of radio-instrumented grizzly bears within the Yellowstone area. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 359-367 ->

Kelleyhouse, David G. Habitat utilization by black bears in northern California. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 221-227 ->

Knight, Richard R. Biological considerations in the delineation of critical habitat. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 1-3 ->

Kordek, Walter S. and Lindzey, James S. Preliminary analysis of female reproductive tracts from Pennsylvania black bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 159-161 ->

LeCount, Albert L. Some aspects of black bear ecology in the Arizona chaparral. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 175-179 ->

Lentfer, Jack W. and Hensel, Richard J. Alaskan polar bear denning. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 101-108 ->

Lentfer, Jack W., Hensel, Richard J., Gilbert, James R., and Sorensen, Fred E. Population characteristics of Alaskan polar bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 109-115 ->

Lindzey, Frederick G. and Meslow, E. Charles. Harvest and populations characteristics of black bears in Oregon (1971-74). 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 213-219 ->

Manlove, Michael N., Baccus, Ramone, Pelton, Micheal R., Smith, Michael H., and Graber, David. Biochemical variation in the black bear. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 37-41 ->

Markov, Georgi. On the distribution of the brown bear in Bulgaria. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 259 ->

Matula, George J. Jr., Lindzey, James S., and Rothenbacher, H. Sex, age, and seasonal differences in the blood profile of black bears captured in northeastern Pennsylvania. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 49-56 ->

Mealy, Stephen Patrick. The natural food habits of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park, 1973-74. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 281-292 ->

Mysterud, Ivar. Bear management and sheep husbandry in Norway, with a discussion of predatory behavior significant for evaluation of livestock losses. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 233-241 ->

Pelton, Michael R., Beeman, Larry E., and Eagar, Daniel C. Den selection by black bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 149-151 ->

Poelker, Richard J. and Parsons, Lowell D. Black bear hunting to reduce forest damage. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 191-193 ->

Reynolds, Doyle G. and Beecham, John J. Home range activities and reproduction of black bears in west-central Idaho. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 181-190 ->

Röben, Peter. Status of the brown bear in the Pyrenees. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 243-247 ->

Roth, Hans U. Defecation rates of captive brown bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 249-253 ->

Schallenberger, Allen. Review of oil and gas exploitation impacts on grizzly bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 271-276 ->

Schneegas, Edward R. and Frounfelker, Carl R. Critical habitat and other resource programs in relation to grizzly bear management. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 9-11 ->

Singer, Francis J. and Bratton, Susan Power. Black bear/human conflicts in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park . 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 137-139 ->

Stewart, Glenn R., Siperek, John M., and Wheeler, Vernon R. Use of the cataleptoid anesthetic Cl-744 for the chemical restraint of black bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 57-61 ->

Stringham, Stephen F. Possible impacts of hunting on the grizzly/brown bear, a threatened species. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 337-349 ->

Stuart, Thomas W. Exploration of optimal backcountry travel patterns in grizzly bear habitat. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 25-32 ->

Uspenski, S. M. and Belikov, S. E. Data on the winter ecology of the polar bear in Wrangel Island . 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 119 ->

Vroom, G. William, Herrero, Stephen, and Ogilive, R. T. The ecology of winter den sites of grizzly bears in Banff National Park, Alberta. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 321-330 ->

Watanabe, Hiroyuki. Damage to conifers by the Japanese black bear. 1980. International Conf. of Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 67-70 ->

Wooldridge, Donald R. Chemical aversion conditioning of polar and black bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 167-173 ->

Wooldridge, Donald R. and Belton, Peter. Natural and synthesized aggressive sounds as polar bear repellents. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 85-91 ->

Zardus, Maurice J. and Parsons, David J. Black bear management in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 195-200 ->

Zavadski, B. P. Ecology of the brown bear in the Enisei Taiga. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 261 ->

Abstracts

Abstract: Home range and movement patterns of 17 radiocollared adult black bears (Ursus americanus) were determined from approximately 2,000 radio-locations obtained between January 1973 and December 1976 in northeastern Pennsylvania. Total home range size averaged 173 km² for males and 41 km² for females. Females traveling with offspring used larger areas than solitary females. Seasonal variations in home range and movement patterns were extensive. Maximum home range size and maximum daily movements of adult males and breeding females occurred during the June and July breeding season, whereas home range size and movements of females with cubs increased from spring through summer, peaking in September. Monthly home range size and distance between daily sequential locations were directly related (R²=0.74), indicating that as bears increase their home range size they also become more mobile. Home ranges for both sexes appeared to be geographically stable both on an annual and seasonal basis.

Abstract: Brown bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi) alpine summer habitat use patterns were studied at the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge in 1973, 1974, and 1975. Seven plant communities were described and mapped within the alpine and subalpine zones of the 56.5 km² study area. Single bears and family groups showed an almost exclusive preference for Carex macrochaeta as the primary food. Alpine activity areas, determined for 29 individually identified bears, were small; those of lone adults were twice the size of those females with young, 1.70 and 0.85 km², respectively. The average density was 0.85 bear/km² but rose to 2.60 bears/km² in an area where animals concentrated to feed. Bears spent 5-6 weeks in the high mountains, abruptly departing when young Carex macrochaeta plants were no longer being produced.

Azuma, Shigeru and Torii, Harumi. Impact of human activities on survival of the Japanese black bear. 1980. International Conf. of Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 71-79

Abstract: The range of the Japanese subspecies of the Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus) has declined in western Honshu. In Kyushu and Shikoku, local populations are approaching extinction. Meanwhile, the annual harvest of bears has increased from less than 1,000 to 2,000 between 1950 and 1972, largely resulting from the increasing number of control kills. The distribution dynamics and the ecological consequences of the impact of human activities on 4 subpopulations were studied. Reductions in bear range and outbreaks of tree damage by bears were found closely associated with the rapid disappearance of natural forest. Present control practices and the various types of habitat destruction made these subpopulations increasingly vulnerable, and in 2 cases, partial or complete elimination of a subpopulation was confirmed.

Bacon, Ellis S. Curiosity in the American black bear. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 153-157

Abstract: American black bears (Ursus americanus) were tested to quantify their response to novel objects placed in their environment. The results indicate that the level of orientation may be greater in the black bear than in other North American carnivores. The exploration of objects by the black bears is characterized by a high degree of contact with the objects. This contact consists primarily of manipulating the objects with the forepaws and chewing the objects. The intense curiosity of the black bear should be recognized and considered in the management of this species and in the evaluation of bear/human conflicts.

Ball, Ronald E. Time-lapse cameras as an aid in studying grizzly bears in northwest Wyoming. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 331-335

Abstract: Time-lapse cameras were effective for gathering limited distribution and population data on grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and black bears (Ursus americanus) in northwest Wyoming. Thirty-six stations, each consisting of a camera and a lure, were monitored for 551 camera-days; 83 rolls of film were exposed. Five different lures were tested. Thirty-one bears (5 grizzly, 25 black, 1 unknown bear) were identified at 15 stations. Young:adult and young:female ratios observed (0.4 and 1.5 for black bears and 0.7 and 2.0 for grizzlies) corresponded well with those of other researchers in the region. One sighting recorded on film extended the known range of the grizzly bear in the Shoshone National Forest.

Beecham, John. Some population characteristics of two black bear populations in Idaho. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 201-204

Abstract: Two geographically discrete populations of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Idaho were studied during 1973-76. The Council population, located in west-central Idaho, has a history of heavy hunting pressure, accessibility, and liberal hunting seasons. The Lowell population in north-central Idaho has relatively light hunting pressure, poor accessibility, and liberal hunting seasons. An analysis of the male and female age structures indicated that adult males were more susceptible to hunting than other segments of the population. Sex composition differed significantly between subadult and adult segments of the 2 populations, but not between populations. Mean litter size was 1.9 at Council and 1.7 at Lowell. Productivity (number of young produced per year) appears to be density-independent and a function of habitat quality and the number of adult females present in the population.

Beeman, Larry E. and Pelton, Michael R. Seasonal foods and feeding ecology of black bears in the Smoky Mountains. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 141-147

Abstract: Between June 1969 and January 1972, 75 stomachs and 1,025 scats from black bears (Ursus americanus) were collected from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and vicinity for food content analysis. Grasses and the other herbaceous leaves and stems, squawroot (Conopholis americana), huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.), black cherry (Prunus serotina), acorns from oaks (Quercus spp.), blackberries (Rubis spp.), and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) composed 81 percent of the diet by volume. Eleven percent of the food consumed was animal matter, principally Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. Artificial food constituted 6 percent of the diet. The most critical season with regard to food availability appears to be late fall because mast (nuts) is the only preferred natural food source available and mast failures occur frequently. There is additional evidence that nutrition, productivity, movement, and bear/person incidents are also influenced by feeding ecology of the species.

Belikov, S. E. Distribution and structure of dens of female polar bears in Wrangel Island. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 117

Abstract: During the period 1971-76, the number of dens of female polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in the Drem-Head Mountains (25 km² on the northwest side of Wrangel Island) underwent radical changes, ranging from a maximum of 63 dens note in 1975 to a minimum of 17 dens in 1976. The number of dens was not directly related to spring snow depth.
     The topography of the snow cover is very specific each year, depending on the direction of prevailing winds, slope exposure, absolute and relative elevation, and steepness. This results in uneven distribution of dens. More than half of the dens were found at middle elevations (101-300m); snow depth here (average 137 cm) was 1.5 times less than at lower elevations and 1.35 times greater than at higher elevations. It is possible that females avoid areas of both too deep and too shallow snow cover.
     Slopes with terraces which are not relatively high (up to 50 m) and with average steepness of 10-30° are especially favorable for the accumulation of snow, and it is here where most dens are found.
     While bears are in their dens, changes in wind direction cause redistribution of snow, resulting in many dens becoming unsuitable (half-opened dens and dens with thin roofs). Females often leave such dens and dig temporary dens or occasionally reoccupy deserted ones. The proportion of temporary dens is higher in years with little snow.
     Many dens show signs of the digging activity of the female; this is very conspicuous in dens with several chambers. The digging activity of the female brings about changes in the thermal and gas regimes in the den. If the female does not dig out a new chamber upward but digs it along or down the slope, the "igloo" principle--that the chamber of the den should be located higher than the entrance hole for preservation of heat in the den--may be violated. In dens located in areas with little snow where the snow cover upslope becomes thinner, the igloo principle may be easily violated.
     Of 131 dens examined, 85 (65 percent) were maternal, 19 (15 percent) were temporary, and 27 (20 percent) were of unknown character. The relative proportions of maternal and temporary dens enables us to more precisely define the number of breeding females in the population.

Berns, Vernon D., Atwell, Gerry C., and Boone, Daniel L. Brown bear movements and habitat use at Karluk Lake, Kodiak Island. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 293-296

Abstract: Since 1967, brown bears (Ursus arctos middendorffi) have been radiotracked in studies devoted to movements and use of habitat. A total of 487 contacts were made with 29 animals. The bears tended to move to Karluk Lake streams in July to feed on salmon. In August, they spent more time in the midlands to feed on berries. Midlands appeared to be preferred for hiding and resting. Uplands were primarily used for cross-country travel and for denning in winter. Denning usually occurred in alder patches on northeast-facing slopes at elevations of 483 m to 670 m. Home ranges of 7 males averaged 24.4 km² as compared with 14.3 km² for single females during the summer and 10.6 km² for females with young during the fall. More data are needed on the period from den emergence to summer before all the habitat requirements at Karluk Lake can actually be identified.

Bjärvall, Anders. The brown bear in Sweden--distribution, abundance, and management . 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 255-257

Abstract: Between 1913 and 1942, the brown bear (Ursus arctos ) was totally protected on state land in Sweden. The resultant increase in the population allowed a shooting season to be established in 1943 in 2 areas, in central and northern Sweden. Official shooting statistics show that the annual harvest of bears decreased sharply after 1971 even though the population was believed to be increasing. To resolve the status of the brown bear, a nationwide survey embodying questionnaires and some field work was carried out in 1975-76. Reports from Lapp villages, local affiliates of the Swedish Sportsmen's Association, large lumber companies, and the Swedish Forest Service were used to determine the nationwide distribution of the species and to estimate the maximum and minimum numbers of bears for each area that reported. Survey results indicate that the present brown bear population numbers 400-600 individuals widely but very unevenly distributed in northern and central Sweden, with marked concentrations in the northern parts of Jämtland and in wooded and low mountain areas in central Norrbotten. As a result of the survey, it is suggested that the open season be abolished and that a license system be established for better adjustment of the harvest to the true distribution of the species.

Buchalczyk, Tadeusz. The brown bear in Poland. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 229-232

Abstract: In early times, the brown bear (Ursus arctos L.) was preserved by law for royal hunts and occurred in large numbers in the extensive forests of Poland. From the 16th century on, its destruction became increasingly intensive, and by the end of World War l, only a few bears were left. Full legal protection was given the bear in 1952. Attempts to reintroduce the bear into the Bialowieza Primeval Forest were halted by World War ll. At present, there is a western population (Tatra Mountains) and an eastern poulation (western Bieszczady Mountains) in Poland. Their combined numbers are estimated to be about 30, with a density of 0.02-0.33 animals per 1,000 ha. Because of increasing human activities and interference in the bear's range, preservation of the bear populations will soon require the establishment of extensive and less disturbed areas in which the brown bear can live in comparative security.

Bunnell, F. L. Tait D. E. N. Bears in models and in reality--implications to management. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 15-23

Abstract: The use of computer simulation models as an aid to understanding of biological data was demonstrated using a number of simulated bear populations. Data from black (Ursus americanus), brown (U. arctos), and polar bear (U. maritimus) populations were employed. Population models without feedback were used to compute mortality isoclines as a function of reproductive measures and to document the unreliability of age structure as an indicator of population growth form. A simple Leslie matrix projection was modified to include the effects of population density and hunting. The resulting models provided a consistent explanation for some of the sex and age ratios reported in the literature. The importance of spatial and temporal distributions of hunting pressure were documented, and management implications of hunting patterns, population biology, and dispersion of bears were summarized.

Chester, James M. Factors influencing human-grizzly bear interactions in a backcountry setting. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 351-357

Abstract: Interactions between humans and 7 species of wildlife, including grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis), were investigated in backcountry areas of the Gallatin Range, Yellowstone National Park, during the summers of 1973 and 1974. Grizzly bear distribution, movements, and behavior and human behavior were examined. Because grizzlies utilized areas with elevations much in excess of the study area's average trail elevation, the likelihood of the off-trail party observing a grizzly bear was 3-4 times greater than that of a trail-traveling party. During the hiking season, grizzlies exhibited an elevational migration. The frequencies of on-trail and combined on- and off-trail observations and sign discoveries per party tended to peak during those periods that grizzlies were found at low elevations. Activity patterns of grizzlies at the point of first observation or after the bears had become aware of the human presence did not indicate behavioral traits likely to accentuate the possibilities of human-bear confrontations. Some backcountry travelers engaged in activities that could increase detrimental encounters with grizzly bears.

Clarke, Stephen H., O'Pezio, John, and Hackford, Charles. Fostering black bear cubs in the wild. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 163-166

Abstract: Three black bear (Ursus americanus) cubs were abandoned, at approximately 2 weeks of age, on 4 February 1976, in New York State's Catskill region. The dens of 4 radio-telemetered adult female bears were located by the Department of Environmental Conservation during research on the black bear population in the Catskills. Two of the abandoned cubs were placed in the only maternity den existing among the 4 radio-telemetered female bears. The 6-week-old foster cubs were accepted by the adult female bear. The foster mother left the den in mid-April accompanied by 3 cubs. The family group was observed twice from radiotracking aircraft during the spring and summer of 1976.

Dean, Frederick C. and Tracy, Diane M. The bear bibliography project. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 13-14

Abstract: Over 6000 references on bears have been assembled, including published and unpublished materials. The FAMULUS programs are being used to produce and search files on brown and American black bears (Ursus arctos and U. americanus). As of July 1977, over 1000 references on each of these two species had been computerized. Effective searches by subject (based on title), author, date, and keywords (for about 5%) are possible. Draft review copies were distributed. Announcements of general availability and search costs will be made as soon as feasible. Work is continuing, although additional support will be needed for maximum productivity.

Folk, G. Edgar Jr., Hunt, Jill M., and Folk, Mary A. Further evidence for hibernation of bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 43-47

Abstract: Typical mammalian hibernators overwinter with low metabolism (0.01 normal), heart rate (7bpm), and body temperature (5C). There is some evidence that bears hibernate like typical small (50-500g) mammalian hibernators. It is known that bears remain in winter dens for 4-7 months with very little movement and without food, water, urination, or defecation; they show a large reduction in heart rate and a small reduction in core temperature. To gain further evidence, we compared the unique EKG of typical hibernators with the EKG of bears with respect to season, activity , and dormancy. In this study, the EKG of 3 species of bears and of Marmota hibernators was recorded by implanted radio-capsule while they were in winter dens. The EKG of awake typical small hibernators is characterized by a reduced relaxation (QT) interval. It was determined that the 3 species of bears, when awake, also have a reduced relaxation interval (bears 0.14-0.23 second; marmota-species 0.07-0.14 second; man 0.39 second). This finding was interpreted as further evidence that bears are hibernators. Additional findings were that (1) the faster the heart rate of hibernators, the shorter is the relaxation interval; and (2) at a constant heart rate, the relaxation interval of both bears and typical hibernators when nondormant, changes from winter to summer.

Abstract: Damage to coniferous trees by black bears (Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus Schlegel) was studied in 1 man-made stand recently clearcut and in another stand 20 years old, in west-central Honshu. Diameters of stumps of bear-damaged trees in the man-made stand ranged from 9.8 cm to 29.8 cm, and, in the 20-year-old stand, trees with a dbh greater than 10.4 cm became susceptible to damage. Information on geographical distribution and history of bear damage and on species and ages of bear-damaged trees was obtained by questionnaire. Relating changes in the pattern of bear damage to the practice of clearcutting and to great declines in natural forests more than 51 years old shows that when clearcutting and man-made forests are extensive, bears damage to man-made forest increases.

Glenn, Leland P. Morphometric characteristics of brown bears on the central Alaska Peninsula. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 313-319

Abstract: On the central Alaska Peninsula 344 different brown bears (Ursus arctos L.) were measured during 502 captures in 5 spring seasons, 1970-75. Height at shoulder, chest girth, total body length, neck circumference, hind-foot length, zygomatic width, skull length, total skull size, and body weight were measured and classified by sex and cementum age. Growth rates were plotted. No morphometric differences were detected between sexes at 6 months of age, but sexual dimorphism was evident by 1.5 years of age and persisted through life. Except for zygomatic width, female bears attained at least 95 percent of ultimate body dimensions between ages 4 and 6 years and males between ages 6 and 8 years. Zygomatic width was the last dimension to attain ultimate size. Extensive size overlap was demonstrated among bears 1.5 years and older of the same sex. Superior size-weight correlations were derived from zygomatic width. It was demonstrated that the sex of bears over 9 years of age could be determined on the basis of total skull size. Serial measurements of adult bears were tested for accuracy of repetitive measurements. Skull dimensions were the least affected by inaccuracies in measuring technique. Correlations (r²) for models tested revealed that skull dimensions were the best indicators of growth rate. Of the 10 dimensions studied, none provided a reliable age substitue for counting cemental annuli.

Glenn, Leland P. and Miller, Leo H. Seasonal movements of an Alaska Peninsula brown bear population. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 307-312

Abstract: On the central Alaska Peninsula, 344 different coastal brown bears (Ursus arctos L.) were immobilized and marked during 5 spring seasons. Between 1970 and 1976, the observed locations of 123 marked bears were determined 354 times, and the locations of 139 marked bears killed by hunters during spring and fall hunting seasons were recorded. Bears moved greater distances per unit of time during spring than during other seasons of the year. Summer movements were restricted as bears concentrated along streams to feed on salmon. Dispersal away from streams began in late summer. Denning usually began by mid-November, but some bears remained out of hibernation through mid-December. The seasonal ranges of 30 adult females averaged 293 km² and those of 4 adult males averaged 262 km². Limited movement data for adult males suggested that males spent more time than females in or near escape cover. The mobility and spring distribution of adult females were related to changes in their reproductive status. Single adult females moved further than females accompanied by young. Females with 1-to 3-year-old young utilized open lowland areas during the spring and tended to be in mountainous terrain when breeding and when accompanied by young through age 6 months. Subadult males were more transient than females, tending to move out of their maternal seasonal range after family separation; subadult females tended to remain. The seasonal range of 5 subadult males and of 6 subadult females averaged 740 km² and 224 km², respectively.

Hamilton, Robert J. and Marchinton, R. Larry. Denning and related activities of black bears in the coastal plain of North Carolina. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 121-126

Abstract: Black bear (Ursus americanus) activities in southeastern North Carolina were determined by radiotelemetry, trapping success, track counts, scat collections, and hunter harvests from May 1974 to January 1977. All data indicated that bear activity decreased progressively in autumn. The only significant winter movement was by males, 3 years old and younger. Four bears denned on the ground in dense Carolina bay vegetation. One adult female denned in a bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) with an entrance cavity approximately 25 m above the water. The earliest date for denning by radio-monitored bears was 5 December and latest emergence was 22 April. Five bears remained inactive for periods ranging from 85 to 113 days, averaging 102. An adult male had the shortest period of inactivity. Two subadult males remained active throughout the midwinter. Postdenning movements gradually increased and reached a peak during breeding season in June and July.

Hanai, Masamitsu. Population characteristics of the Japanese black bear in Hakusan National Park, Japan. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 63-66

Abstract: A population study of the Japanese black bears ( Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus) harvested by the traditional hunting method was initiated in 1970 in Hakusan National Park and vicinity, central Japan. The hunting season lasts about 40 days from early April until early May during a time of heavy snow cover. A total of 265 bears were killed from 1970 to 1976 and 88 skulls were available for age determination. Their average age was 6.64 years (SD = 5.38 years), and younger bears (1-6 years old) made up approximately 65 percent of the sample. The sex ratio did not significantly differ from 50:50. Age structure and sex ratio are likely to be biased because of the lesser vulnerability of females with cubs to hunting.

Harding, Lee and Nagy, John A. Responses of grizzly bears to hydrocarbon exploration on Richards Island, Northwest Territories, Canada. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 277-280

Abstract: Observations on numbers, distribution, location of dens, and responses of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos L.) to industrial disturbances were noted on Richards Island, Northwest Territories, Canada, during 1972-75. During this period 13-23 bears occupied the 2,460-km² study area. Bear responses to hydrocarbon exploration and related activities were observed 23 times, and 35 dens were located. Bears were distributed evenly over the study area during the summer but avoided camps by 1 km or more. Density was comparable to that of other artic mountain and coastal bear populations, and no decline was apparent. Effects of industrial activities included slight loss of habitat, disturbance of denning areas resulting in abandonment of dens, and relocation of problem bears. It is predicted that proposed natural gas production facilities will not be compatible with continued survival of grizzly bears in Richards Island.

Harms, Dale R. Black bear management in Yosemite National Park. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 205-212

Abstract: Conflicts between park visitors and the American black bear (Ursus americanus ) in Yosemite National Park pose serious management problems for the National Park Service and often result in extreme inconvenience and monetary losses to park visitors. Food-reward associations with humans have resulted in the loss of the black bear's instinctive fear of people and in the development of highly sophisticated patterns of depredation. A management program consisting of 5 basic elements was implemented in the spring of 1975 to meet bear management objectives of the National Park Service. The efforts of management on bears and park visitors were evaluated by monitoring the patterns of damage that bears displayed before and during the program. Analyses of data accrued from property damage, personal injuries, and control of problem bears were also made. The results of these analyses are discussed and their implications applied to management practices and research needs. Comparisons of data accrued before and through the first 2 years of the program appear to support the hypothesis that the program is achieving its stated objectives.

Hensel, Richard J. and Sorensen, Fred E. Age determination of live polar bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 93-100

Abstract: The reliability of counting cementum annulations in premolar sections was evaluated for age determination in live polar bears (Ursus maritimus ). Structural irregularities in cementum deposits decreased accuracy of age assignments. Displacements of the neonatal line toward the exterior margin of cementum growth resulted in erroneous aging for young animals. Striated, wavered, and doubled growth layers affected accuracy for older animals. Sixty-eight unlabeled tooth slides representing 57 known-age bears, examined by 3 independent investigators, revealed that only 32-45 percent were correctly aged. Analysis of age-related body measurements of 46 male and 63 female polar bears of known age showed that morphometric regression equations could be used as an age indicator. Reproductive status, general body size, and tooth replacement or wear used as criteria to tentatively age animals in the field, combined with subsequent cementum counts and growth regression analyses, provided reliable age determinations.

Hugie, Roy D. Species planning: an approach to black bear management and research in Maine. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 127-129

Abstract: The Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife began the active phase of comprehensive species planning in 1974 and implemented the resultant plan for black bears (Ursus americanus) in 1975. The black bear's past, present and projected future status were evaluated in terms of interrelationships among population, density, distribution, habitat, use-demand, and use-opportunity. Alternate goals and objectives were formulated for presentation to wildlife professionals, administrative personnel, and selected segments of the public. The goal set for the black bear was to maintain 1970-74 levels of abundance, distribution, and use. The objective was to provide for an annual harvest of about 800-1,000 bears by 30,000 hunters statewide, with maximum allowable harvest differing according to management units. Experience thus far indicates that comprehensive species planning has greatly benefited black bear management in Maine and can be highly recommended for other areas.

Jacobsen, Robert D. Legal aspects of critical habitat determinations. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 5-8

Abstract: The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is the strongest legislation ever enacted to protect species faced with extinction. Section 7 of that Act requires all federal agencies to ensure that their actions do not jeopardize the continued existence of legally designated endangered or threatened species or result in destruction or modification of their critical habitats. Critical habitats are determined by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife service to delineate those areas of air, land, and water that are essential to the survival and recovery of listed species. Critical habitats are not refuges, de facto wilderness areas, or areas in which little on no activity can be undertaken. Rather, critical habitats are delineated so that federal agencies can be aware of the essential habitats of listed species and can take special care to plan and carry out their activities in ways that will not adversely impact endangered or threatened species or their habitats.

Johnson, Loyal. Brown bear management in southeastern Alaska. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 263-270

Abstract: Brown bears (Ursus arctos) inhabit the mainland of southeast Alaska and islands north of Frederick Sound. Greatest numbers occur in Alaska Game Management Unit 4, the ABC (Admiralty, Baranof, and Chichagof) islands, where about 70 percent of the southeastern harvest is taken. Average sport harvests increased from 51 bears per year (1949-56) to 60 per year (1962-72) to 141 in 1975. Other pertinent harvest statistics have remained fairly consistent since 1949: average skin size (length plus width), 4.1 m; average skull size (length plus width), 54.6 cm. Based on dental annuli, ages of males have averaged 8.1 years since 1968. The highest mean annual age was 9.4 years in 1976. The goal of management is to maintain a high-quality hunting experience, which an annual harvest rate of 60-80 animals per year will do much to provide. Harvest statistics gathered over the past 30 years will provide guidelines to insure that management plans are biologically sound. Current regulations that should limit the harvest to desired levels are a $25 tag fee for resident hunters and a limit on the number of guides who can operate in Unit 4. If these fail, time-space zoning, further restrictions on guides, or ultimately permit-only hunting will be necessary. Transfer of nearly 151,760 ha to private land through the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act and continuing large-scale clearcut logging further cloud the management issue, but with prudent management policies, high-quality and reasonably high-quantity brown bear sport hunting should be possible for many years to come.

Jonkel, Charles, Husby, Peter, Russel, Richard, and Beecham, John. The reintroduction of orphaned grizzly bear cubs into the wild. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 369-372

Abstract: Several techniques can be used to return captured orphaned bear cubs to the wild. They can be released immediately in suitable habitat, be adopted by another female with young, or be fattened and then released. The last technique was used successfully to return to the wild an orphaned cub obtained by the Border Grizzly Project of the University of Montana in 1975. The cub was fattened in captivity and released into an artificial den after being fitted with a radiocollar. She denned successfully nearby and survived the winter and early spring with no known problems.

Joslin, Gayle and Kapler, Jane. A computerized system for recording and recalling grizzly bear reports. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 33-36

Abstract: Reports of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) from throughout the Border Grizzly Area were collected, verified, coded, and stored in a computerized file called the base data bank. Each report included four primary categories of information -- report type, date, location, and source of information. Depending upon complexity, additional data were either stored in the base data bank using secondary information categories or were recorded verbatim in a narrative file that was cross-referenced from the base data bank. Applications of the system and its further development are discussed.

Judd, Steven L. and Knight, Richard R. Movements of radio-instrumented grizzly bears within the Yellowstone area. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 359-367

Abstract: Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) movement patterns were studied with the aid of 18 radio-instrumented grizzly bears in 1975 and 1976. Five bears gave minimal information because of death, transmitter failure, or loss of transmitters. Seasonal home range information is presented for 13 bears. Two bears, trapped inside Yellowstone National Park, included areas outside of the park in their home ranges. Twelve bears trapped outside included parts of the park in their home ranges. Three females with young gave no indication of having smaller home ranges than other individuals. Movement patterns prior to denning and dates of denning varied among individual bears.

Kelleyhouse, David G. Habitat utilization by black bears in northern California. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 221-227

Abstract: A study was conducted during May-September 1974 as an integral part of a comprehensive population analysis of black bears (Ursus americanus Pallas) in Trinity County, California, by the California Department of Fish and Game. Habitat types on the study area were delineated and evaluated, and the selection and use of each type by black bears were estimated from all fresh bear sign encountered during trapping and radiotracking activities. Scats were collected and analyzed for frequency of occurrence and percentage volume of food items. Bear sign in wet meadows accounted for 55 percent of all sign found during May although wet meadows comprised less than 1 percent of the study area. Mixed conifer forest received heavy bear use during all periods except late August, when bears forage for insects in decayed logs and stumps in high-elevation partial cuts. Black bears used manzanita (Arctostaphylosspp.) brush habitats extensively during late summer and fall to feed on manzanita berries. A failure of the manzanita berry crop in 1973 was believed to have caused a higher rate of subadult mortality and a lower rate of cub production in 1974.

Knight, Richard R. Biological considerations in the delineation of critical habitat. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 1-3

Abstract: Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) require large areas to satisfy their needs for food, cover, and space. They thrive best where disturbance by man is minimal. It is not a coincidence that the two major grizzly bear populations in the lower 48 states exist in large wilderness systems closely associated with two large national parks and a relatively large game preserve. If management objectives for these areas do not change, and man-bear interactions can be kept low, viable grizzly bear populations can probably be maintained. Outside of the parks and wilderness areas, the picture is less clear. Grizzly bears adapt to some habitat modifications. The extent of their adaptability to habitat modification or human interaction is largely unknown. Answers to many pertinent questions will be slow in coming. In the meantime, management policies based on common sense rather than on adversary reactions among agencies are the best insurance of the grizzlies' survival.

Kordek, Walter S. and Lindzey, James S. Preliminary analysis of female reproductive tracts from Pennsylvania black bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 159-161

Abstract: Reproductive tracts were collected from 87 female black bears (Ursus americanus) killed by hunters in northeastern and north-central Pennsylvania during November 1974 and 1975. Pregnant animals carried an average of 2.75 corpora lutea. Corpora lutea were significantly larger in tracts that had implantations than in tracts during the delay stage. The sources of ova were found to be equally divided between ovaries. Twelve blastocysts and 22 implanted embryos were examined. Variation in development stage among these samples indicated that implantation occurred late November or early in December. An average of 2.88 placental scars were observed in animals bearing scars. Potential recruitment from first breeding (2.39 animals) was significantly less than from second or later breedings (3.23 animals). Minimum breeding age for female bears was 2.5 years, at which time 38 percent of the animals bred. The majority of females bred by the time they were 3.5 years old. A very low incidence of nonbreeding females was found.

LeCount, Albert L. Some aspects of black bear ecology in the Arizona chaparral. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 175-179

Abstract: A study of the black bear (Ursus americanus) on a 100 km² study area in the chaparral vegetation type of Arizona was initiated in 1973. During the subsequent 3.5-year period, 44 individual bears were captured and minimum density of 1 bear per 2 km² was estimated. Twenty-eight bears were radio-instrumented and more than 1,100 locations were recorded. The radio-locations indicated that subadult males have a home range averaging 42 km², adult males 29 km², adult females 18 km² and subadult females 13 km². There is considerable overlap of home ranges among adult males. A lesser degree of overlap was observed for adult females. Twenty-four dens were located. Most den sites were at elevations between 1,300 and 1,500 m. Some bears den by 1 November, the majority by 15 November. Emergence from dens begins about 15 March and all bears, except females with cubs, leave their dens by 15 April. Females with cubs remain at den sites approximately 30 days longer.

Lentfer, Jack W. and Hensel, Richard J. Alaskan polar bear denning. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 101-108

Abstract: Information on 35 overwinter maternity dens of Alaskan polar bears (Ursus maritimus Phipps) and on 101 female polar bears with cubs, recently emerged from dens, was obtained by aerial and ground surveys, interviews with Arctic coast residents, and literature review. Pregnant females form snow dens in October and November and give birth in December and January. Females and cubs emerge from dens in late March and April. Factors necessary for continued successful denning in an area include ice movements that enable bears to reach the area in the fall; the availability of seals as a food source and ice conditions facilitating their capture during the predenning and postdenning periods; and suitable weather conditions (snowfall, wind, and ambient temperatures) and topography that combine to produce snowdrifts that do not thaw during the denning period. Dens consist of 1 or more chambers, connecting tunnels, and entrance-exit tunnels. Alaskan dens were found as far inland as 48 km from the coast, along the coast, on offshore islands, on shorefast ice, and on drifting sea ice. Bears denning in the coastal zone are subject to human disturbance and should receive protection.

Lentfer, Jack W., Hensel, Richard J., Gilbert, James R., and Sorensen, Fred E. Population characteristics of Alaskan polar bears. 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 109-115

Abstract: A mark-recapture study of Alaskan polar bears (Ursus maritimus) was conducted between 1967 and 1976. Of 809 bears tagged, 147 were recaptured 1 or more times or killed by hunters. Three-year-old males and 6- and 7-year-old females were underrepresented in the captured sample. Analyses of cohort age composition over time indicated male (age 6+) and female (age 8+) annual survival rate of 0.84. Average litter size was 1.63 and breeding interval was 3.6 years. The age of first successful breeding for females was 5.4 years. For adult females, the average number of young per year was 0.45. With these fecundity estimates, the annual juvenile survival rate of 0.97 calculated from cohort data is that which is required to maintain population size.

Lindzey, Frederick G. and Meslow, E. Charles. Harvest and populations characteristics of black bears in Oregon (1971-74). 1980. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 4, 213-219