Table of Contents Ursus 8    

Ballard, Warren B., Roney, Kathryn E., Ayres, Lee Anne, and Larsen, Douglas N. Estimating grizzly bear density in relation to development and exploitation in northwest Alaska. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8 , 405-413.

Barnes, Victor G. Jr. The influence of salmon availability on movements and range of brown bears on southwest Kodiak Island. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 305-313.

Beringer, Jeffrey J., Seibert, Steven G., and Pelton, Michael R. Incidence of road crossing by black bears on Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 85-92.

Bjärvall, Anders, Sandegren, Finn, and Wabakken, Petter. Large home ranges and possible early sexual maturity in Scandinavian bears. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 237-241.

Calvert, Wendy and Stirling, Ian. Interactions between polar bears and overwintering walruses in the central Canadian High Arctic. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 351-356.

Clevenger, Anthony P. and Pelton, Michael R. Pre and post breakup movements and space use of black bear family groups in Cherokee National Forest, Tennessee. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 289-295.

Clevenger, Anthony P., Purroy, Francisco J., and Pelton, Michael R. Movement and activity patterns of a European brown bear in the Cantabrian Mountains, Spain. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 205-211.

Fagen, Robert and Fagen, Johanna. Play behavior of brown bears (Ursus arctos) and human presence at Pack Creek, Admiralty Island, Alaska. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 315-319.

Floyd, Timothy and Nelson, Ralph A. Bone metabolism in black bears. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 135-137.

French, S. P. and French M. G. Predatory behavior of grizzly bears feeding on elk calves in Yellowstone National Park, 1986-1988. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 335-341.

Garner, Gerald W., Knick, Steven T., and Douglas, David C. Seasonal movements of adult female polar bears in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 219-226.

Graber, David M. Winter behavior of black bears in the Sierra Nevada, California. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 269-272.

Gunther, Kerry A. Visitor impact on grizzly bear activity in Pelican Valley, Yellowstone National Park. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 73-78.

Gunther, Kerry A. and Renkin, Roy A. Grizzly bear predation on elk calves and other fauna of Yellowstone National Park. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 329-334.

Herrero, Stephen and Fleck, Susan. Injury to people inflicted by black, grizzly or polar bears:  recent trends and new insights. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 25-32.

Kansas, John L. and Raine, R. Michael. Methodologies used to assess the relative importance of ecological land classification units to black bears in Banff National Park, Alberta. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 155-160.

Kasworm, Wayne F. and Manley, Timothy L. Road and trail influences on grizzly bears and black bears in Northwest Montana. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 79-84.

Kolenosky, George B. Reproductive biology of black bears in east-central Ontario. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 385-392.

Leonard, Richard D., Breneman, Ray, and Frey, Ray. A case history of grizzly bear management in the Slims River area, Kluane National Park Reserve, Yukon. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 113-123.

Mack, John A. Black bear dens in the Beartooth Face, south-central Montana. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 273-277.

Manville, Albert M. II. Variability of dental diseases in two populations of Great Lakes black bears. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 129-134.

Mattson, David J. Human impacts on bear habitat use. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 33-56.

McCrory, Wayne P., Herrero, Stephen M., Jones, Greg W., and Mallam, Erica D. The role of the B.C. provincial park system in grizzly bear preservation. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 11-16.

McCutchen, Henry E. Cryptic behavior of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 65-72.

McLaughlin, Craig R., Matula, George J. Jr., Cross, Randall A., Halteman, William H., Caron, Mark A., and Morris, Karen I. Precision and accuracy of estimating age of Maine black bears by cementum annuli. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 415-419.

McLean, Peter K. and Pelton, Michael R. Some demographic comparasions of wild and panhandler bears in the Smoky Mountains. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 105-112.

McLellan, Bruce N. Relationships between human industrial activity and grizzly bears. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 57-64.

Miller, Sterling D. Population management of bears in North America. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 357-373.

Miller, Sterling D. Denning ecology of brown bears in southcentral Alaska and comparisons with a sympatric black bear population. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 279-287.

Miller, Sterling D. Detection of differences in brown bear density and population composition caused by hunting. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 393-404.

Mykytka, James M. and Pelton, Michael R. Management strategies for Florida black bears based on home range habitat composition. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 161-167.

Nagy, John A. S. and Haroldson, Mark A. Comparisons of some home range and population parameters among four grizzly bear populations in Canada. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 227-235.

Noyce, Karen V. and Coy, Pamela L. Abundance and productivity of bear food species in different forest types of northcentral Minnesota. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 169-181.

Picton, Harold D., Palmisciano, Daniel, and Nelson, Gerald. Fluctuating asymmetry and testing isolation of Montana grizzly bear populations. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 421-424.

Powell, Roger A. and Seaman, D. Erran. Production of important black bear foods in the Southern Appalachians. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 183-187.

Raine, R. Michael and Kansas, John L. Black bear seasonal food habits and distribution by elevation in Banff National Park, Alberta . 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 297-304.

Reinhart, Daniel P. and Mattson, David J. Bear use of cutthroat trout spawning streams in Yellowstone National Park. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 343-350.

Rogers, Lynn L. and Wilker, Gregory W. How to obtain behavioral and ecological data from free-ranging, researcher-habituated black bears. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 321-327.

Schoen, John W. Bear habitat management: A review and future perspective. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 143-154.

Seaman, D. Erran and Powell, Roger A. Identifying patterns and intensity of home range use. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 243-249.

Smith, Bernard L. Sex weighted point system regulates grizzly bear harvest. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 375-383.

Smith, Roger B. and Van Daele, Lawrence J. Impacts of hydroelectric development on brown bears, Kodiak Island, Alaska. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 93-103.

Smith, Tommy R. and Pelton, Michael R. Home ranges and movements of black bears in a bottomland hardwood forest in Arkansas. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 213-218.

Sorensen, O. J., Overskaug, K., and Kvam, T. Status of the brown bear in Norway 1983-86. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res and Manage. 8, 17-23.

Stirling, Ian and Derocher, Andrew E. Factors affecting the evolution and behavioral ecology of the modern bears. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 189-204.

Strickland, M. Dale. Grizzly bear recovery in the contiguous United States. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 5-9.

Stringham, Stephen F. Black bear reproductive rate relative to body weight in hunted populations. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 425-432.

Stringham, Stephen F. Grizzly bear reproductive rate relative to body size. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 433-443.

Tsubota, Toshio, Kanagawa, Hiroshi, Mano, Tsutomu, and Aoi, Toshiki. Corpora albicantia and placental scars in the Hokkaido brown bear. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 125-128.

Van Daele, Lawrence J., Barnes, Victor G. Jr., and Smith, Roger B. Denning characteristics of brown bears on Kodiak Island, Alaska. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 257-267.

Wang, Y. The current status of Formosan black bear in Taiwan. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 1-4.

Watts, P. D. Comparative weight loss in three species of ursids under simulated denning conditions. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 139-141.

Zimmerman, John W. A critical review of the error polygon method. 1990. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 251-256.

Abstracts

Ballard, Warren B., Roney, Kathryn E., Ayres, Lee Anne, and Larsen, Douglas N. Estimating grizzly bear density in relation to development and exploitation in northwest Alaska. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8 , 405-413.

Abstract: Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) densities within a 1,862 km² study area surrounding a lead/zinc mine in northwest Alaska were estimated using mark-recapture methods during late May and early June 1987.  Radio collars were used to mark bears and assess population closure.  Density estimates were 1 bear/66 km² for adults (>3-years-old) and 1 bear/51 km² for bears of all ages.  Some of the biases and problems associated with the mark-recapture method were discussed.  Density estimates were used to estimate population size within and near the bear study area, and this estimate was compared with reported and suspected annual harvests.  Estimated annual harvest rates in recent years ranged from 8 to 16%.  Current bear density and population estimates will be compared with estimates obtained after the mine is developed to assess impacts on the bear population.

Barnes, Victor G. Jr. The influence of salmon availability on movements and range of brown bears on southwest Kodiak Island. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 305-313.

Abstract: Brown bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi) movements and seasonal range were examined in relation to the temporal and spatial distribution of salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) on southwest Kodiak Island, Alaska, from 1983 to 1987.  Salmon were available to bears from late June to mid-December and were utilized by all sex and age classes.  From 50-89% of adult females fished at _2 separate areas of salmon abundance each year. Mean composite summer range of females tracked 2-5yrs (108 km²) was much greater than either spring (13 km²) or fall (26 km²) range.  Annual summer range of 8 females tracked 4 consecutive years averaged 40 km²; a smaller mean area of primary use (12 km²) reflected a pattern of movement between areas of concentrated food.  Females did not restrict their movement patterns in years they were accompanied by new (<1yr) cubs.  Males fished for salmon at the same sites used by females but traveled between those areas more often than females.  Annual variation in movement patterns was due apparently to behavioral differences among individual bears as well as yearly fluctuations in berry production, salmon availability, and unknown factors.  Important bear feeding areas in this region can be conserved by monitoring salmon escapements together with associated bear use, and by restricting human access at particular sites.  

Beringer, Jeffrey J., Seibert, Steven G., and Pelton, Michael R. Incidence of road crossing by black bears on Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 85-92.

Abstract: We examined the reactions of 24 radio-tagged black bears (Ursus americanus) to roads on the Harmon Den area Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina, during 1984 to 1987.  The number of times roads were crossed by bears was related to the road density within their home range, and to the traffic volume associated with these roads.  Roads were classified according to the mean number of vehicles using that road per day.  Class l roads had 10,000+ vehicles per day, Class ll had a 50-100 vehicles per day, and Class lll roads had 5-20 vehicles per day.  Bears crossed Class l roads significantly less (P < 0.0001) than Class ll and lll roads.  Class ll and lll roads were crossed with almost equal frequency.  A mean difference of 60 vehicles per day between the 2 classes did not affect the crossing frequency by bears.  Bears strongly avoided (P < 0.0001) Class l roads as the density of these roads in their home range increased.  Bear crossings of Class lll roads increased as road density increased.  Bears were found to cross roads with greater frequency during daylight hours than at night.  The potential adverse effects of human ativities such as timber management and hunting are discussed in relation to different types and uses of roads. 

Bjärvall, Anders, Sandegren, Finn, and Wabakken, Petter. Large home ranges and possible early sexual maturity in Scandinavian bears. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 237-241.

Abstract: Radio-collared brown bears were studied in 2 areas, one located in northernmost Sweden, the other in the centre of the Scandinavian Peninsula on both sides of the border between Norway and Sweden.  Most bears were tracked on snow in spring and radio-collared after being darted from a helicopter.  When possible all bears were monitored once a week by fixed-wing aircraft.  Some bears were monitored more continuously several days each week by car from forest roads.  In 1984-88, 48 individual bears were radio-equipped in the project.
     Males used larger home ranges than females.  In the northern study area 4 adult males had minimun annual ranges of 726-2,634 km².  Seven adult females in the same area used annual home ranges of 171-1,002 km².  Eight adult males in the southern study area used annual home ranges of 1,200-4,297 km², while minimum annual home ranges of 4 adult females in the same area ranged between 254-531 km².  Bimonthly aerial monitoring would have given home ranges of both adult males and adult females of approximately 60% of those obtained by weekly monitoring.  A female in the north, monitored since she was a yearling, had her first litter of cubs at 5 years of age. 

Calvert, Wendy and Stirling, Ian. Interactions between polar bears and overwintering walruses in the central Canadian High Arctic. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 351-356.

Abstract: There are few records of predation by polar bears (Ursus maritimus) on walrus (Odobenus rosmarus), although their distributions overlap extensively.  During the late winter and early spring from 1981 to 1989, we recorded interactions between polar bears and walrus in the central Canadian High Arctic, where walrus movements are severely restricted in the winter by limited areas of open water for breathing and haulout holes.  Predatory behavior of bears and anti-predator behavior of walruses were observed.  We found evidence that polar bears made wounding but non-fatal attacks on 3 walruses, killed 3 walruses, and probably killed 4 others.  One walrus was frozen out of its breathing hole and vulnerable to predation.  Although the vulnerability of walrus to polar bear predation would vary with habitats and seasons, it is clear that polar bears are important predators of walruses in the central Canadian High Arctic in late winter-early spring.  

Clevenger, Anthony P. and Pelton, Michael R. Pre and post breakup movements and space use of black bear family groups in Cherokee National Forest, Tennessee. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 289-295.

Abstract: The movements and space use of 7 yearling black bears (Ursus americanus) (3 males, 4 females) from 3 family groups were intensively monitored concurrently with 13 adults (6 males, 7 females) in the Cherokee National Forest, Tennessee from February 1983 until December 1983.  The timing of family breakup occurred in 2 families between 29 May-5 June, and 22-25 June, respectively.  The third family dissolved after the accidental death of the mother during immobilization at the den; the subsequent movements of the orphaned young were recorded.  Reassociations between mother and offspring, and between siblings did occur after breakup.  The mean summer home ranges of yearlings (n=6) averaged 4 km² while those of adult bears (n=8) measured 11 km².  Fall ranges for yearlings were 20 km² and for adults 77 km².  The intra-year seasonal ranges of yearlings increased significantly (P < 0.01) from summer to fall while the adult ranges did not (P > 0.10).  Yearlings after separation from their mothers became progressively independent of their mothers' range.  Mean distances between mothers and offspring, and between siblings after breakup, increased each month as family bonds began to weaken and exploratory movements took place.  Six of 7 yearlings survived until the following winter although 1 shed his collar before denning and his fate was unknown; all other yearlings returned and located dens in their respective maternal home ranges.     

Clevenger, Anthony P., Purroy, Francisco J., and Pelton, Michael R. Movement and activity patterns of a European brown bear in the Cantabrian Mountains, Spain. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 205-211.

Abstract: The first capture of European brown bear (Ursus arctos) in Spain occurred in the National Hunting Reserve of Riaño on 16 October 1985.  An adult male was radio-marked and movements and activities were monitored until September 1988.  Distances between daily radio-locations ranged from <0.1 km to 20.5 km and averaged 1.6 km.  The 2 extremes were attributed to food availability, particularly winter-starved ungulates, and breeding.  Seasonal home ranges varied from 39 km² (fall/winter) to 1,272 km² (breeding).  Movements during 1987 and 1988 totaled 246 and 1,308 km², respectively.  Seasonal activity data from diel recordings (n=92) indicated that the bear's activity was greatest during breeding period (43%).  Diel activity patterns were crepuscular year-round.  Daytime activity was lowest during post-denning and highest in fall/winter, averaging over 50% active.  Food availability, breeding season, and levels of human activity were felt to be the most important factors influencing this bear's movements and activity patterns in the Cantabrian Mountains of Spain.   

Fagen, Robert and Fagen, Johanna. Play behavior of brown bears (Ursus arctos) and human presence at Pack Creek, Admiralty Island, Alaska. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 315-319.

Abstract: Brown bears of all ages play.  They use fighting movements and postures to interact harmlessly with conspecifics, they chase birds, they roll and slide, and they manipulate objects.  Individual bears at the Pack Creek estuary on northern Admiralty Island played from less than 1% to over 20% of their total time in sight in 1987-8.  Play frequencies in 1987-8 were independent of presence or absence of human visitors.

Floyd, Timothy and Nelson, Ralph A. Bone metabolism in black bears. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 135-137.

Abstract: Denning bears maintain normal serum calcium concentration and do not develop osteoporosis after months of recumbency.  A circulating substance may be responsible for this previously undescribed phenomenon.  Further investigation of its potential theraputic usefulness in man makes preservation of all ursine species an important management priority.

French, S. P. and French M. G. Predatory behavior of grizzly bears feeding on elk calves in Yellowstone National Park, 1986-1988. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 335-341.
Keywords: grizzly bears/predation/behavior/Yellowstone/elk/Wyoming

Abstract: Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) were observed preying on elk calves (Cervus elaphus) on 60 occasions in Yellowstone National Park, with 29 confirmed kills.  Some bears were deliberate predators and effectively preyed on elk calves for short periods each spring, killing up to 1 calf daily.  Primary hunting techniques were searching and chasing although some bears used a variety of techniques during a single hunt.  They hunted both day and night and preyed on calves in the open and in the woods.  Excess killing occurred when circumstances permitted. One bear caught 5 calves in a 15-minute interval.  Elk used a variety of anti-predator defenses and occasionally attacked predacious bears.  The current level of this feeding behavior appears to be greater than previously reported.  This is probably related to the increased availability of calves providing a greater opportunity for learning, and the adaptation of a more predatory behavior by some grizzly bears in Yellowstone.

Garner, Gerald W., Knick, Steven T., and Douglas, David C. Seasonal movements of adult female polar bears in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 219-226.

Abstract: Ten adult female polar bears (Ursus maritimus) were fitted with satellite telemetry collars during March 1986 in the Kotzebue Sound area of the Chukchi Sea.  During March-April of 1987, two of these bears were refitted with satellite telemetry collars and an additional 10 adult females were collared in the northern Bering and eastern Chukchi seas. Data for 1,560 point locations recorded through May 1988 indicated that female polar bears in the Bering and Chukchi seas were resident in western Alaskan waters from November through March, then moved northward with the receding pack ice during April and May.  They remained in the northern and northwestern Chukchi Sea during June through September, often adjacent to the Soviet coastline.  Satellite telemetry data indicated that 4 females marked in Alaskan waters of the Chukchi Sea apparently denned in the vicinity of Wrangel Island during winter 1987/1988.  Denning in American territory of bears marked in the Chukchi and Bering seas has not been documented using satellite telemetry data.  Some polar bears moved from the Chukchi Sea into the western Beaufort Sea during summer and fall, then returned to the Chukchi and Bering seas the following winter.  Movements of bears from the Chukchi Sea into the central or eastern Beaufort Sea were not documented through to the spring 1988.  These data document that polar bears occurring in the Bering and Chukchi seas are shared internationally between the United States and the Soviet Union. 

Graber, David M. Winter behavior of black bears in the Sierra Nevada, California. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 269-272.

Abstract: Black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Sierra Nevada range of California do not reliably exhibit the classic pattern of compulsory winter dormancy generally reported for this species.  Pregnant females and most other adults hibernate for approximately 3.5 months, but only 37% of males are winter dormant. Winter-active bears tend to use lower elevations where snow cover is sporadic, growth after autumn rains provides herbaceous foods, and acorns may remain on the ground. Warmer temperatures at these lower elevations also reduce energy costs for active bears. The absence of a single environmental or physiological factor that discriminates between winter-active and winter-dormant bears, however, suggests that a complex suite of factors affects a bear's decision to remain active or den.

Gunther, Kerry A. Visitor impact on grizzly bear activity in Pelican Valley, Yellowstone National Park. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 73-78.

Abstract: Visual observations were used to determine if human activity affected grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) use of open meadow areas in Pelican Valley, Yellowstone National Park.  Visitor compliance with bear management regulations and safety warnings were also evaluated.  From May-September 1984-88, 944 bear observations were recorded.  During this period, the study area was managed for 3 levels of backcountry use: open (both day use and overnight camping allowed), restricted use (day use only), and closed (no visitor use allowed).   The average flight distance of grizzly bears to tree cover following disturbance by backcountry users was 422 m.  When the valley was open to visitors, bear activity in areas greater than 500 m from forest cover was significantly reduced and bears avoided areas around occupied backcountry campsites.  No differences in diurnal hourly activity patterns were observed among the open, restricted, and closed periods.  Foot parties were more likely to be charged during an encounter with a grizzly bear than people on horseback. All incidents in which hikers were charged by bears involved groups of 1 or 2 people.  Only 17% of the observed hiking parties followed the recommended group size of 4 or more people.  Compliance with the area closure and day use only regulations was 99% and 83%, respectively. 

Gunther, Kerry A. and Renkin, Roy A. Grizzly bear predation on elk calves and other fauna of Yellowstone National Park. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 329-334.

Abstract: Success rate, frequency, chronology, and techniques of grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) predation on elk calves (Cervus elaphus) were determined from visual observations in the Pelican Valley area of Yellowstone National Park, 1984-88.  Seventy hunts directed toward elk groups containing calves were recorded, 26 of which were successful.  Twenty one, 13 and 4 percent of all grizzly bear sightings in May, June, and July, respectively, involved hunts toward cow/calf groups.  Success was significantly correlated with the number of attempts and time of year.  Grizzly bears were successful in killing calves in 71%, 42%, and 7% of the observed hunts in May, June, and July, respectively.  Grizzly bears used 3 different techniques to hunt elk calves.  Attempted predation on adult elk and other fauna was also observed.

Herrero, Stephen and Fleck, Susan. Injury to people inflicted by black, grizzly or polar bears:  recent trends and new insights. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 25-32.

Abstract: We update or extend data presented by Herrero (1985).  Injury rates were low, 1980-1985.  The highest rates were 317,700 and 328,645 park visitors per injury inflicted by black or grizzly bear in Kluane and Denali National Parks.  Injury rates calculated against number of backcountry user nights were significantly higher for all parks where injury occurred, but this exaggerates the danger from bears in backcountry areas since day use is not included.  In certain national parks such as Glacier (Montana) there appears to have been an increase in grizzly bear-inflicted injury to persons traveling off-trail.  The potential danger from grizzly bears that are habituated to people and/or have learned to feed on people's food or garbage is stressed by focusing on 8 fatal, predatory attacks in Glacier (Montana), Yellowstone and Banff National Parks between 1967-1986.  Habituated grizzly bears may also attract photographers who may be injured or killed by such bears.  Carrying dead ungulates or imitating the sounds of prey may attract grizzly bears and this may lead to human injury.  Five cases of grizzly bear-inflicted injury (including 2 deaths) were identified in which this appeared to have been a common circumstance.  Additional evidence is cited supporting the idea that grizzly bear injuries inflicted during sudden encounters are most likely to occur in habitat where grizzly bears have been attracted by natural foods during the time when the injury occurred.  A thorough search for records dated between about 1965-1985 of polar bear-inflicted injury revealed only 20 injurious incidents.  In 15 or 16 of these the bear's motivation appeared to have been predation.  Six people were killed in such incidents.  At least 251 polar bears were killed during aggressive encounters.  Only 5 or 6 aggressive interactions (3 or 4 leading to human injury) were attributed to females defending their young.  Female polar bears appear to be less aggressive toward people in defense of young than are grizzly bears, but more aggressive than black bears.

Kansas, John L. and Raine, R. Michael. Methodologies used to assess the relative importance of ecological land classification units to black bears in Banff National Park, Alberta. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 155-160.

Abstract: Methodologies of a 3-year study of black bear (Ursus americanus) habitat use in Banff National Park, Alberta are presented.  The study was designed to determine if black bear habitat use could be described by an existing 1:50,000 scale Ecological (Biophysical) Land Classification (ELC) of Banff National Park.  Fifteen bears were radio-collared and their use of ecological land units (ecosites) was determined through 1,855 locations.  Feeding signs were recorded and 466 scats collected. Seasonal ecosite importance ratings on a 5-tier scale were assigned using a 3-step process.  First, a subjective assessment was conducted that relied on the biologists' field experience during the study, results of scat analysis, and tabulation of feeding signs found.  Second, the telemetry results were analyzed for the observed versus expected use of ecosites by bears as determined by the area of each ecosite.  Third, a food habits model that was based on the relative percent occurrence of ELC vegetation types and key bear foods within each ecosite was used to derive a second set of seasonal ecosite importance ratings.  From 77-90% of seasonal ecosite ratings either matched for all three methods, or differed by 1 rating class between the subjective and modeled techniques. This strong consistency between rating methods indicates that the relative importance of closed legend ecosites at a 1:50,000 scale of mappings can be discerned within a 5-tier rating system.  It is cautioned that at this scale of mapping, the rating classes serve only as a first-order planning tool. High ratings should raise a red flag to managers who must then conduct site-specific investigations.    

Kasworm, Wayne F. and Manley, Timothy L. Road and trail influences on grizzly bears and black bears in Northwest Montana. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 79-84.

Abstract: Radio locations from 3 grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and 26 black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Cabinet Mountains of northwest Montana were analyzed to determine the effects of roads and trails on seasonal habitat use patterns from 1983 to 1988.  Two seasons, spring and fall, were identified based on food habits and habitat use.  Distances from radio locations to the nearest open road and trail were compared to distances from random points to the nearest road and trail.  Grizzly bears used habitat 0-914 m from open roads less than expected based on availability during spring and fall (P<0.05).  Black bears used habitat 0-274 m from open roads less than expected during spring and used habitat 0-914 m from roads less than expected during fall.  Grizzly bears used habitat 0-122 m from trails less than expected during spring and fall.  Black bears used habitat 0-122 m from trails less than expected during spring and used habitat 0-305 m from trails less than expected during fall.  Habitat availability appeared related to grizzly bear avoidance of trails, and black bear avoidance of roads and trails.  Mean distance from grizzly bear radio locations to a seasonally closed road increased when the road was opened (P<0.001), though black bear locations did not (P=0.324).  The benefits of road closures in bear management were discussed.

Kolenosky, George B. Reproductive biology of black bears in east-central Ontario. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 385-392.

Abstract: The reproductive characteristics of 241 female black bears (Ursus americanus) _3-years-old were examined in east-central Ontario from 1969-1980.  During the 12-year period, the percentage of adult females reproducing each year ranged from 13-58 and averaged 38.  Litter sizes ranged from 1 to 4 and averaged 1.9 from summer captures and 2.5 from den examinations.  Size of litters was positively correlated with both age of the female (P<0.009) and weight the previous fall (P<0.001) (N=28).  Fall weights of 20 adult females that produced cubs the following year averaged 97 kg compared to an average of 70 kg for 14 females that did not produce cubs.  Weights of 16 of 20 of the former exceeded 80 kg whereas only 4 of 14 of the latter group were that heavy.  Females produced their first litters at ages 5-8; the mean age of first reproduction was 6.  Age-specific natality rates for females aged 5-18 ranged from 0.36 to 1.50.  Females aged 5-7 produced an average of 0.6 cubs/year and females aged 8-18 an average of 1.2 (P<0.01).  Based on 4-8 consecutive years of breeding history, 14 of 15 bears had a 2-year breeding cycle.  The male-to-female ratio of cubs produced was 113:100 (N=96).  Of the 68 different adult females checked during the study, 59% produced at least one litter of cubs.  However 17 of the 68 bears produced 66% of all litters.  Characteristics common to the most productive females were longevity, large size, possession of a home range and low vulnerability to hunters.  Because a successful female had a high probability of being successful again, the protection of females with young would be a desired management strategy in heavily hunted populations or populations occupying marginal or fragmented patches of habitat.    

Leonard, Richard D., Breneman, Ray, and Frey, Ray. A case history of grizzly bear management in the Slims River area, Kluane National Park Reserve, Yukon. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 113-123.

Abstract: A management planning program for Kluane National Park Reserve was completed in 1980.  A major decision was made to develop a public transit system in the Slim River Area to facilitate visitor access to a large valley glacier.  The transit system was not built and the valley was managed as a backcountry hiking area for an interim period.  Characteristics of grizzly bear-people conflicts were monitored from 1981 to 1987.  Park staff and 2,603 registered overnight backcountry users recorded 503 grizzly observations.  Observations of solitary bears increased from 40% of total bear observations in 1981 to 84% in 1987. Frequency of avoidance behavior by grizzlies decreased whereas apparent neutral and approach behaviors increased.  Incidents defined as serious were infrequent from 1981 to 1984 (n=3).  Serious incidents sharply increased in 1985 (n=10) and continued to be relatively frequent in 1986 (n=6) and 1987 (n=9).  Serious incidents were categorized as close approach or charge (n=10), pack robbing (n=8), food cache robbing (n=2) and disturbance of tent camps (n=4), facilities (n=3) and vehicles (n=1). Management actions resulted in the death of 5 grizzlies, relocation of 5 grizzlies and area closures.  Our analysis of relevant documents from 3 national park planning and management processes indicated that grizzly bears were not adequately treated in plans and environmental assessments for the Slims River Area because of emphasis on the proposed public transit system.  The relationship between habituation of grizzlies to people and food conditioning was not recognized in management of the Slims River Area as a wilderness hiking area.  We considered national park management processes to be valid tools for grizzly management provided they are implemented by trained, knowledgeable staff that apply adequate information before making decisions.

Mack, John A. Black bear dens in the Beartooth Face, south-central Montana. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 273-277.

Abstract: Thirty-three black bear (Ursus americanus) dens were located on the Beartooth Face of south-central Montana during the winters of 1984/85 through 1986/87.  Mean slope (28°) and elevation (2,239m) of den sites did not significantly differ between males and females.  Most (61%, N=33) den sites were located on northerly (northeast, north, and northwest) aspects.  Most (71%, N=16) dens inspected required some form of excavation.  In 1986, den entrance began the last week of September and lasted 4-5 weeks.  The largest number of bears entered dens between 8-15 October.  Twenty and 18% of radio-collared bears abandoned den sites and relocated to new dens during 1985-86 (N=15) and 1986-87 (N=11), respectively.  Security of dens appeared to be important, especially for the females with cubs, and was related to bears denning on high elevation, steep slopes away from disturbance.

Manville, Albert M. II. Variability of dental diseases in two populations of Great Lakes black bears. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 129-134.

Abstract: Black bears (Ursus americanus) were live-trapped, immobilized, and examined to determine the incidence of dental caries, broken and missing teeth, and jaw and bone trauma; and the incidence and cause(s) of periodontal disease in northern Wisconsin in 1974-1975 (N=95), and in Michigan's northern Lower Peninsula from 1977-1980 (N=35).  Based on tooth sectioning, Wisconsin bears ranged in age from 0.5 to 15.5 years (average age for males and females was 4.5 and 6.02 years, respectively); Michigan bears ranged in age from 0.02 to 8.1 years (average age for males and females, 4.5 and 4.29 years, respectively).  As expected, dental caries were common in both Wisconsin (9[10.5%] of 86 bears examined) and Michigan bears (7[20%] of 35).  In both cases, caries appeared to develop in older animals, ranging from 3.5 to 15.5 years of age in the Wisconsin sample and 3.5 to 8.1 years of age in the Michigan sample.  Bears suffering from periodontal disease varied considerably between cohorts.  In Wisconsin, only 1 (1.1%) of 95 bears, a 5.5-year-old female, was infected with the disease.  In Michigan, however, 13 (37%) of 35 bears had periodontal disease in varying degrees of severity, suffering tooth loss, infection, edema, bleeding, and jaw and gum atrophy.  There was insufficient evidence, however, to indicate that bacteria (N=12) caused the disease.  Using 2-dimensional isoelectric focusing, 5 samples of blood serum from diseased bears contained a minor protein band not present in disease-free samples.  The results could not be replicated from other diseased bears, however.  Selenium levels were low in bears examined (0.066-0.74 ug Se/ml serum), and although baseline values are not known for black bears, insufficient quantities of selenium, in bear diets in Michigan's Lower Peninsula selenium-deficient belt are suspected of causing or at least contributing to the disease. Although periodontal disease was reported as age-dependent in other studies, such was not the case in Michigan (disease range=1.75-6.5-years-old).  Winter movements of several seriously-infected bears were related to disease infection. 

Mattson, David J. Human impacts on bear habitat use. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 33-56.

Abstract: Human effects on the bear habitat use are mediated through food biomass changes, bear tolerance of humans and their impacts, and human tolerance of bears.  Large scale changes in bear food biomass have been caused by conversion of wildlands and waterways to intensive human use, and by the introduction of exotic pathogens.  Bears consume virtually all human foods that have been established in former wildlands, but bear use has been limited by access.  Air pollution has also affected bear food biomass on a small scale and is likely to have major future impacts on bear habitat through climatic warming.  Major changes in disturbance cycles and landscape mosaics wrought by humans have further altered temporal and spatial pulses of bear food production.  These changes have brought short-term benefits in places, but have also added long-term stresses to most bear populations.  Although bears tend to avoid humans, they will also use exotic and native foods in close proximity to humans. Subadult males and adult females are more often impelled to forage closer to humans because of their energetic predicament and because more secure sites are often preempted by adult males.  Although male bears are typically responsible for most livestock predation, adult females and subadult males are more likely to be habituated to humans because they tend to forage closer to humans.  Elimination of human-habituated bears predictably reduces effective carrying capacity and is more likely to be a factor in preserving bear populations where humans are present in moderate-to-high densities.  If humans desire to preserve viable bear populations, they will either have to accept increased risk of injury associated with preserving habituated animals, or continue to crop habituated bears while at the same time preserving large tracts of wildlands free from significant human intrusion. 

McCrory, Wayne P., Herrero, Stephen M., Jones, Greg W., and Mallam, Erica D. The role of the B.C. provincial park system in grizzly bear preservation. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 11-16.

Abstract: The role of the large provincial park system in British Columbia (B.C.) in protecting grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) populations, range and ecological variation was examined in a provincial, national and international context.  Varying degrees of protection of grizzly bears are provided by the 53 larger parks over 1,000 ha each and 89 smaller parks under 1,000 ha each.  Trophy hunting is still allowed in 20 parks. Grizzly bears are extirpated in 12 larger parks and severely reduced in another 7.  These 19 parks represent about 10% of the total range of 4,402,600 ha protected by provincial parks.  B.C. parks support about 6% of the provincial grizzly population, contribute 5.6% of grizzly range, and represent about 1/3 of the 45 distinct landscapes in grizzly range, thus protecting ecological diversity.  Nationally, B.C. provincial parks contribute about 27.5% of the total area of Canada's protected grizzly range and about 39% of the protected population.  Internationally, B.C. provincial parks preserve grizzly bears in 2 unique global biogeographical provinces and contribute to 2 important Canadian-U.S. protected grizzly regions.  Preliminary minimum viable population analysis showed that no B.C. provincial park is large enough to support the number of grizzly bears (393) considered necessary for long-term survival of genetic in-breeding and catastrophes should park populations become further isolated.  Preservation of B.C.'s valuable grizzly bear resource therefore depends on sound management of large ecological systems that include large cores of protected wilderness and adjoining multiple-use lands.  A comprehensive management program is recommended.

McCutchen, Henry E. Cryptic behavior of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 65-72.

Abstract: Black bear (Ursus americanus) in many U.S. and Canadian national parks become habituated to humans.  They are often bold, frequent human use areas and are generally a nuisance. At Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, the antithesis of this behavior has been observed in the black bear population.  A 4-year study using radio telemetry and observation indicates that although many bears have home ranges in high human use areas, they are secretive and avoid humans and developed areas.  The behavior of 2 of the park's radio-collared bears is documented and discussed.

McLaughlin, Craig R., Matula, George J. Jr., Cross, Randall A., Halteman, William H., Caron, Mark A., and Morris, Karen I. Precision and accuracy of estimating age of Maine black bears by cementum annuli. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 415-419.

Abstract: We investigated the precision and accuracy of age estimation by cementum annuli counts for Maine black bears (Ursus americanus).  Precision of age estimation was assessed by: 1) a repeated measures analysis of variance design to evaluate effects of reader, reader experience, bear sex, bear age class, and trial; and 2) pair-wise comparisons of estimated years of birth (YOB) from series of premolars removed from bears over periods ranging from 2 days to 12 years.  Age estimation accuracy was assessed through pair-wise comparisons of cementum-assigned YOB to known YOB for known-age bears.  Experienced readers assigned significantly (P = 0.0001) lower age estimates than inexperienced readers;  greater differences in age estimates occurred in old bears.  Least variation in age estimates occurred in experienced readers' estimates for young bears (SD = 1.08 yr).  Experienced readers estimated age more precisely over 3 trials than inexperienced readers (P = 0.0051).  YOB estimates from multiple teeth removed from individual bears showed decreasing agreement with increasing time between tooth removal (P = 0.002), and decreasing agreement with increasing age of bears (P < 0.001).  Teeth removed later in life yielded later YOB estimates than teeth removed earlier.  Cementum age estimates are accurate for bears _ 6 years of age, but may underestimate age in older bears.  Managers using cementum age estimation should recognize the technique's limitations in precision and accuracy, and minimize changes in personnel and methodology to reduce variation in estimates over time.

McLean, Peter K. and Pelton, Michael R. Some demographic comparisons of wild and panhandler bears in the Smoky Mountains. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 105-112.

Abstract: Body measurements, sex, weight, age, and reproductive condition were collected from 1,210 captures of wild and 492 captures of pandhandler black bears (Ursus americanus) trapped in the Smoky Mountains (SM) from 1968 to 1988.  Gender was associated with the bear's status (i.e., panhandler/wild) (panhandler: 60% male, wild: 54% male, P=0.056).  Wild male bears were significantly older than panhandler bears (3.9 vs 2.9 yr, P=0.0001); wild female bears were older than pandhandler females (4.9 vs 3.7 yr, P= 0.004).  Male and female panhandlers were significantly heavier than their wild counterparts (P < 0.05), and panhandler bears grew faster than wild bears.  The number of lactating females was significantly associated with status (P < 0.001); 56% of the panhandler and only 33% of the wild females were lactating.
     Panhandlers were more fertile and larger than wild bears likely reflecting the panhandlers better access to and use of high-energy, human foods particularly during years of natural food shortage.  Small amounts of these foods, the availability of which varies with panhandler bear management, appear to make differences in body size.  Dispersal and the large home range size of the males and subadults probably explain the propensity of these bears to become panhandlers.  The above findings as well as differences in demographic characteristics among wild bears within the Smoky Mountains are further discussed as they relate to the nutritional qualities of the environment. 

McLellan, Bruce N. Relationships between human industrial activity and grizzly bears. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 57-64.

Abstract: Most grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) live outside parks and reserves and often have to contend with, among other things, resource extraction industries.  These activities can affect individual bears and therefore populations by: 1) causing strong, energetically expensive reactions by bears that disrupt their normal behavior, 2) displacing bears from areas of human use, 3) altering habitats in which bears live, 4) disrupting the bears' social system, and 5) industrial personnel killing bears or increasing mortality rates indirectly by improving access for hunters, poachers, other resource users, and settlers.  Grizzly bears are able to adapt to many habitat changes and a temporary increase of human presence. In most cases, increased motorized access that results in a long term increase of human activity and/or settlement with consequent increase in bears being shot is the most significant aspect of industrial developments.  If an industrial activity is conducted with adequate guidelines to maintain important habitats, properly locate camps, incinerate garbage, restrict use of firearms, and close motorized access after the job is complete, the bear population probably will be maintained at a satisfactory level.  Although many bears may be alive when an industry has completed its work, if access remains intact, the grizzly population is placed in a precarious position and may decrease in size and eventually be extirpated.  Closing access after job completion is often physically and politically difficult.  Industry personnel and government managers must take leading roles in planning, advertising, and implementing road closures.
     Cumulative effects models have been built to predict the impact of human activities on bear populations.  These models are in early stages and require data to support the coefficients used and the relationships between coefficients.  Then they should be tested.  One significant variable the models lack is the potential for a specific activity to be the seed for blooming additional and perhaps more harmful developments. 

Miller, Sterling D. Population management of bears in North America. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 357-373.

Abstract: Population management for black bears (Ursus americanus), brown-grizzly bears (U. arctos) and polar bears (U. maritimus) in North America is reviewed.  In different areas bear populations are managed to achieve goals of population control, conservation or sustained yield.  Most North American bears are managed for sustained yields and this topic is emphasized.  The consequence of error in population management is high as bears reproduce slowly and reduced populations will require many years to recover.  Simulation results where reproductive rates were generous, natural mortality rates were low, and harvests were 75% of maximum sustainable rates indicated that populations reduced by half will require >40 years to recover for brown (grizzly) bears and >17 years for black bears.  Under optimal conditions for reproduction, natural mortality, and with males twice as vulnerable as females, maximal sustainable hunting mortality was estimated as 5.7% of total population for grizzly bears and 14.2% for black bears.  In recent decades, all 3 species have obtained the status of game animals in most jurisdictions and management for control objectives is increasingly uncommon.  Management for conservation requires primary emphasis on habitat protection and on minimizing mortalities from any source.  Managers of hunted bear populations use information from hunters, from sex and age composition of killed bears, from research programs, and from computer simulation studies.  Non-critical uses of data from any of these sources may lead to management error.  Data on age-at-harvest is especially prone to misinterpretation. Techniques used to limit harvest by managers of hunted bear populations are reviewed.  The primary constraints facing bear population management derive from inadequate habitat protection, political pressures, technological limitations of available population management techniques, and inadequate financial support for management. 

Miller, Sterling D. Denning ecology of brown bears in southcentral Alaska and comparisons with a sympatric black bear population. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 279-287.

Abstract: Brown bears (Ursus arctos) in southcentral Alaska spent an average of 201 days in winter dens.  Males spent the least time in dens (mean= 189 days) and parturient females the most (mean= 217 days).  Females with cubs of the year and females pregnant at den entry spent the least amount of time out of dens (158 and 164 days, respectively) and males the most (180 days).  No difference in den entrance date based on sex or reproductive status was observed.  Mean den entrance date was 14 October. Entrance date differed between years, early entrance appeared associated with berry crop failures and colder weather.  Mean date of exit from dens was earliest for males (23 April) and latest for females with newborn cubs (15 May).  Exit dates also varied between years with late exits correlated with colder weather and persistent snow cover.
     Dens used by brown bears in this area were excavated, no unmodified natural cavities were used.  These dens collapsed during spring and summer precluding reuse.  Some individuals dug dens in the same general area from year to year; mean distance between den sites used in successive years by all bears was 6.1 km.  Characteristics of den sites and sizes of dens are described.  Typically dens were dug at higher elevations and on the periphery of home ranges used during summer and fall.  Upon exit, most bears moved to lower elevations but females with newborn cubs tended to remain in the vicinity of den sites.  Available data suggest this behavior reduces loss of newborn cubs to predation by other bears.
     Compared to a sympatric population of black bears (Ursus americanus), brown bears denned at higher elevations, spent less time in dens, and entered dens earlier.  Den exit dates were similar.  Dimensions of brown bear dens were not significantly larger than excavated black bear dens and mean date of emergence from dens was about the same.  A proposed hydroelectric project in this study area would likely have reduced black bear populations through impacts on black bear denning habitat.  The project would have had only indirect impacts on brown bear denning habitats.

Miller, Sterling D. Detection of differences in brown bear density and population composition caused by hunting. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 393-404.

Abstract: Liberalized hunting regulations in a portion of southcentral Alaska resulted in an increased sport harvest of brown bears (Ursus arctos).  A reduction in population density caused by increased hunter harvest was demonstrated using modified capture-recapture techniques.  Density differences were documented between 2 areas of generally equivalent habitats but different patterns of hunter access as well as in the same area at 2 different times.  Density estimates (for bears >2.0-years-old) were 6.7 bears/1,000 km² (95% CI=5.2-10.1) in the intensively hunted area compared to 10.5 (95% CI=6.0-25.7) in the same area 8 years earlier, and 19.1 (95% CI=16.7-23.2) in the less intensively hunted area.  The total population density estimate was 10.51 bears/1,000 km² in the intensively hunted area.  Males constituted a smaller proportion of the population in the heavily hunted area compared to the less intensively hunted area and to the same area studied prior to onset of increased hunting pressure.  There were relatively more younger males and more older females in the heavily hunted population.

Mykytka, James M. and Pelton, Michael R. Management strategies for Florida black bears based on home range habitat composition. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 161-167.

Abstract: Florida black bears (Ursus americanus) were radio monitored from October 1976 through July 1978.  Composite home range of 11 animals was evaluated to identify important habitat components in the Osceola National Forest (ONF), Florida.  Large swamp systems and surrounding pine flatwood communities were major components of bear habitat.  The composite home range, which covered 49% (303 km²) of ONF, included 7.5 of the 10 major swamps.  Pine forest cover/stand types accounted for 60% of the composite home range.  The composite home range also included 60% (19,003 ha) of forest stand types classified as sawtimber and 35.5% (6,946 ha) classified as poletimber in ONF.  Preservation and restoration of the interconnectivity of large swamps and forested upland buffers surrounding these swamps, and maintaining longer timber rotation would encourage bear use and reduce the vulnerability of bears to overharvest. 

Nagy, John A. S. and Haroldson, Mark A. Comparisons of some home range and population parameters among four grizzly bear populations in Canada. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 227-235.

Abstract: Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare annual and seasonal activity for adult males, adult females with cubs, and adult females without cubs among grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) of the northern Yukon Territory; Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula and Richards Island, Northwest Territories; west-central Alberta; and Jasper National Park, Alberta.  Seasons were spring-early summer (15 May to 21 July) and mid-summer-early fall (22 July to 21 September).  Multiple comparisons of mean class ranks from significant K-W tests (P<0.05) were used to identify statistically distinct population subsets.  These  comparisons showed adult females without cubs in northern Yukon used annual and seasonal ranges that were significantly smaller than those for the same class of bears in the other study areas. Adult males in northern Yukon had the smallest annual home ranges.  Bears in northern Yukon had lighter spring weights, were older, had the highest population density (26-30 bears/1,000 km²) and estimated standing biomass (243 kg/100 km²), and were unexploited. Differences in home range size estimates were primarily attributed to differences in population densities among study areas.

Noyce, Karen V. and Coy, Pamela L. Abundance and productivity of bear food species in different forest types of northcentral Minnesota. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 169-181.

Abstract: Growth and reproduction of black bears (Ursus americanus) have been linked to food availability, particularly berries and nuts.  However, quantitative data on availability of fruits in different habitats are lacking.  Fruit production is highly variable and precise measurements such as berry counts are very time consuming.  We used visual ratings in conjunction with systematic sampling to characterize the areal coverage and productivity of 22 species of herbs and shrubs that produce food for bears in 11 common forest types in northcentral Minnesota.  We made sample counts of berries and nuts to relate visual ratings to fruit biomass.  Abundance of fruit-producing species was highest in regenerating (5-15-year-old) aspen (Populus tremuloides) stands, but total fruit production was highest in 8-20-year-old red pine (Pinus resinosa) plantations that contained interspersed openings of windrowed slash.  Fruit yields were poorest under dense (>80% closed) canopies and in lowland forest types, but lowlands provided a different array of species from uplands.  Subjective ratings were less precise than actual berry counts but could be conducted more quickly, and they were accurate enough to distinguish important differences among stands.  Because many stands could be surveyed during the short berry season, the technique enabled us to compare fruit yields across years and among different forest types, ages and canopy densities. 

Picton, Harold D., Palmisciano, Daniel, and Nelson, Gerald. Fluctuating asymmetry and testing isolation of Montana grizzly bear populations. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 421-424.

Abstract: Fluctuating asymmetry of adult skulls was used to test the genetic isolation of the Yellowstone grizzly population from its nearest neighbor.  An overall summary statistic was used in addition to 16 other parameters.  Tests found the males of the Yellowstone population to be more variable than those of the North Continental Divide Ecosystem. Evidence for precipitation effects is also included.  This test tends to support the existing management hypothesis that the Yellowstone population is isolated.

Powell, Roger A. and Seaman, D. Erran. Production of important black bear foods in the Southern Appalachians. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 183-187.

Abstract: Production of foods has been linked to population sizes, social organization and mating strategies of many vertebrates, yet few studies of bears have quantified food production.  In the Southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina, we quantified production of 2 important foods for black bears (Ursus americanus) during 1986-1988 and the U.S Forest Service quantified a third between 1962 and 1973.  Annual production of squaw root (Conopholis americana) averaged 4.14 kg/ha whereas annual production of berries (Vaccinium spp., Gaylussacia spp., Rubus spp.) averaged 52 kg/ha in areas with berry bush cover, which translates to 2.6 kg/ha over the whole forest (including areas without berry cover).  Mean gross energy production by squaw root was 4.97 x 10 3rd. power kcal/ha and by berries, 1.64 x 10 3rd. power kcal/ha.  Current mean acorn (Quercus spp.) production in the study area is expected to be similar to the 58.1 kg/ha measured between 1962 and 1973. This production of food is significantly higher than that reported for black bears in northern Minnesota.

Raine, R. Michael and Kansas, John L. Black bear seasonal food habits and distribution by elevation in Banff National Park, Alberta . 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 297-304.

Abstract: The food habits and distribution by elevation of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Banff National Park, Alberta, were investigated during a 3-year radio-telemetry study.  Analysis of feeding signs indicated that the typical year is divided into the following bear food seasons: 1) green-up (den exit to mid-June), when horsetails (Equisetum spp.) and graminoid vegetation (grasses, sedges and rushes) formed the major portion of the diets of bears, with importance values of 38.2 and 34.2% respectively; 2) ant (mid-June to mid-July), when bears consumed ants (Formicidae) and ant larvae to a large extent (69.3%); 3) buffaloberry (mid-July to end-August), when bears fed upon buffaloberries (Shepherdia canadensis: 91.4%) once they ripened in mid-summer; 4) post-buffaloberry (end-August to den entry), when, once buffaloberries had fallen from the bushes, bears switched to alternate foods such as crowberries (Empetrum nigrum: 85.1%) bearberries (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi: 11.1%) and juniper (Juniperus communis) berries (0.7%).  Some bears were found to feed primarily upon crowberries during this season, while others mainly ate bearberries.  The mean elevation at which all collared bears were located ranged from 1,500-1,543 m during the first 3 seasons, but increased to 1,694 m during the post-buffaloberry season.  Some bears, however, stayed at low elevations (x=1, 463 m) during the fall and fed upon bearberries.
     Those that fed upon crowberries during the post-buffaloberry season had a mean elevation of 1,768 m, while those that fed upon high-elevation bearberries and white-bark pine (Pinus albicaulis) nuts had a mean elevation of 1,818 m.

Reinhart, Daniel P. and Mattson, David J. Bear use of cutthroat trout spawning streams in Yellowstone National Park. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 343-350.

Abstract: Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and black bears (Ursus americanus) prey on spawning cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki, formerly known as Salmo clarki) in tributary streams of Yellowstone Lake.  These tributary streams were surveyed from 1985 to 1987 to determine the presence and level of trout spawning activity and bear use.  Indices were developed to enumerate spawner density and levels of bear use.  Of 124 known tributaries of Yellowstone Lake, 48% had a spawning run.  Of these spawning streams, 93% had associated bear activity, and 61% had associated evidence of bear fishing.  Bears were apparently using more spawning streams and fish compared to 10 years earlier.  Bear use of cutthroat trout spawning streams appeared to be largely a positive function of volumetric spawner density.  We hypothesize that abundance and quality of stream-side vegetation relative to other foraging options influenced bear use.  Intra- and interspecific avoidance among bears was suggested by patterns of spawning stream use.  Less bear use of spawning streams than expected occurred within 1 km of park developments. 

Rogers, Lynn L. and Wilker, Gregory W. How to obtain behavioral and ecological data from free-ranging, researcher-habituated black bears. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 321-327.

Abstract: A study was conducted in northeastern Minnesota from 1986-1989 to determine the feasibility of habituating black bears (Ursus americanus) to observers for behavioral and ecological research.  Of 18 males and 8 females that repeatedly visited an artificial feeding site in the presence of humans, 3 2-year-old females were radio-collared for further habituation away from the site.  The 3 females were repeatedly located, fed, and accompanied at various locations in their territories.  After 50-100 hours of this additional contact, each bear accepted human presence and mostly ignored observers that followed 1-10 m behind.  The bears were no longer fed in their territories except for the feeding of scat markers for digestion studies.  The bears were observed for 24- or 48-hour periods approximately weekly as they matured, reproduced, and raised cubs.  While being followed, they foraged, napped, slept through nights, showed REM and non-REM sleep, mated, played, nursed their cubs, captured young animals, maintained territories, marked bear trees, prepared dens, and began hibernation.  They relied on natural foods and showed activity and movement patterns similar to daily and annual patterns of 103 non-habituated bears that were radio-tracked previously in approximately the same area.
     A field computer with an internal clock was programmed to aid in the recording of activities, habitat use, food consumption, and weather.  A personal computer was programmed to sort and tabulate the data and calculate 1) time spent in each activity, 2) time spent in each cover type, 3) number of bites taken of each food in each cover type, and 4) time spent in each activity and cover type in each weather condition.  The computer calculated these time-activity budgets for single 24-hour observation periods or for any combination of observation periods specified.  Problems of excessive hunting loss, habitual nuisance behavior, or appreciable observer injury did not occur.  Study results were directly useful to forest managers for identification of opportunity areas for habitat preservation or improvement.  Results provided new insights into black bear diet, bioenergetics, foraging strategies, activity patterns, sociobiology, communications, and bear-human interactions.  Drawbacks were few study animals and limited study area. Comparative studies are needed in new locations, involving additional age and sex classes, additional physiological data, and additional behavior regimes such as might be exhibited by translocated bears, nuisance bears, or bears whose ranges have been altered by fire development, insect defoliation, or extensive timber management.

Schoen, John W. Bear habitat management: A review and future perspective. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 143-154.

Abstract: Throughout the world, bears are declining in numbers and range as habitat is reduced and bear-human interactions increase.  Although ursids are widely distributed and inhabit a variety of habitats, they possess a number of biological characteristics that make them particularly vulnerable to conflict with humans.  The habitat concept is discussed relative to the unique characteristics of bears.  Because bears are wide- ranging species of landscapes, habitat relationships must be evaluated on a broader context than habitat types per se.  Human activities and land uses must be factored into bear habitat relationships.  Forest clearing and road building, in particular, are common problems for the conservation and management of many bear populations.  An understanding of the processes of habitat fragmentation and population extinction is necessary for maintaining viable bear populations in the face of increasing habitat destruction and isolation.  Several management tools and research needs for bear habitat management are discussed. 

Seaman, D. Erran and Powell, Roger A. Identifying patterns and intensity of home range use. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 243-249.

Abstract: Assessing patterns of concentrated and diffuse use of an animal's home range is an important component of understanding ecological and behavior processes.  We present the Area Independent Method (AIM), a graphical and quantitative technique for identifying the pattern of home range use (i.e., clumped or even) and for distinguishing between heavily and lightly used parts of an individual's home range when clumping is present.  This technique does not require that the data have any specified statistical distribution.  The results of the AIM are compared with those from Samuel et al. (1985) when both methods are applied to radio-telemetry locations of 18 black bears (Ursus americanus ).  Total home range size has a lesser effect on the size of the core area identified by the AIM than by Samuel et al.'s (1985) method.  Both methods result in core area usage that is little affected by total home range size.  This technique provides an objective method for comparing areas of concentrated and peripheral use among individuals.

Smith, Bernard L. Sex weighted point system regulates grizzly bear harvest. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  8, 375-383.

Abstract: A system that provides outfitters guiding non-resident hunters with a 3:1 incentive to take male over female grizzly bears was tested in 20 outfitting areas in the Yukon Territory between 1985 and 1988.  This system replaced annual quotas, 1980-1984, that had been criticized as being too small, too inflexible, and lacking incentive for male-selective or dispensed harvest.  This new system was implemented in each outfitting area.  Sex was confirmed through compulsory inspection of "male" pelts with attached bacula.  Most other regulations were unchanged.
     Most of the 20 outfitters modified hunting operations and behaviours. The behaviour changes most likely to increase male harvest were increased upland hunting, spring hunting, small plane use and hunting over "gutpiles".  Generally, the kill increased, sex ratios changed little, the proportion of older bears taken increased, and the head size of bears taken increased.  Future increases in male harvest are expected, but will require training of hunting guides.  Outfitters ranked flexibility, opportunity to increase harvest if male proportions increased, frank individual discussions with biologists, increased potential harvest, and new population estimates, as the most beneficial attributes of this program.  

Smith, Roger B. and Van Daele, Lawrence J. Impacts of hydroelectric development on brown bears, Kodiak Island, Alaska. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 93-103.

Abstract: We investigated the impacts of the construction and operation of the Terror Lake hydroelectric project on brown bears (Ursus arctos middendorffi) on northern Kodiak Island, Alaska, during 1982-86.  Radio collars were maintained on a mean of 35.6 bears throughout each year of the study.  We relocated these bears an average annual total of 933.3 times during a 3-year construction period (1982-86) and 994.5 times during a 2-year post-construction period (1985-86).  Bears that resided near the project used approximately the same areas each year, making only minor shifts to areas with dense cover during construction.  In areas near the project, bears used alpine habitat less, and midslope and lowland habitat more than expected, based on availability.  Over 90% of the bear locations in alpine habitat near the project were made after construction activities ceased, suggesting that bears avoided these open areas during construction.  Dense, brushy cover in midslope and lowland habitats gave bears secure cover, so they continued to use preferred feeding areas near the project both during and after construction.  Areas of mean home range polygons for 5 females closely associated, and 8 females unassociated, with the project, were not significantly different (P>0.1) during construction and post-construction periods.  Individual bears varied widely in their relative associations with the project, but several bears were commonly located near active construction.  Impacts on denning were less than predicted because most bears denned in areas remote from and at elevations above project features. Bears exhibited high fidelity to the same denning areas irrespective of the bears' association with project features.  Total habitat lost to inundation and removal of vegetation was <0.5% of the study area.  Improved vehicular and foot access provided by constructed roads and powerlines, and the increased incentive for development of rural lands provided by surplus electric power, is expected to have long-term impacts on bears through increased disturbance and killing of bears by recreationists and settlers. Mitigation of the project included dedication of adjacent lands for wildlife and creation of a trust fund to support research and habitat maintenance for bears. 

Smith, Tommy R. and Pelton, Michael R. Home ranges and movements of black bears in a bottomland hardwood forest in Arkansas. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 213-218.

Abstract: Between July 1979 and May 1982 movements of 23 radio-tagged black bears (Ursus americanus) were studied in a remnant bottomland hardwood forest in eastern Arkansas.  Estimates of annual and seasonal home range varied substantially within age-sex groups.  Mean annual home ranges of males were significantly larger than those of females in adult and subadult age classes.  Within sex classes, mean annual home ranges of adult and subadults were similar.  The size of annual home range was inversely related to habitat diversity and, in adult males, to weight.  Typically, bears used significantly larger ranges in summer, when their diets were complex and breeding occurred, than in spring or fall-winter, when their diets were simple.  Home ranges of 4 neighboring males overlapped considerably.  Among 2 groups of females, home range overlap varied and may have been related to reproductive condition or kinship.  Radio-tagged bears did not disperse from the study area nor far from their natal ranges, indicating that this remnant population is closed.

Sorensen, O. J., Overskaug, K., and Kvam, T. Status of the brown bear in Norway 1983-86. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res and Manage. 8, 17-23.

Abstract: During 1983-1986 we conducted brown bear (Ursus arctos) surveys in Norway to determine bear distribution and abundance for comparison with similar work conducted in 1978-82 by Kolstad et al. (1984, 1986).  Minimum number of bears was evaluated for each area.  The estimated Norwegian bear population was 102-153 bears, including at least 20 reproductive females.  The distribution pattern in the northern counties of Norway was similar to that found earlier, with a stable or increasing population.  The distribution pattern in southern counties sharply contrasted that of the 1978-82 report, indicating either a decreasing population or 1978-1982 estimates that were too optimistic.
     Bear management plans were proposed in 1988 partly based on a definition of "viable population" as a population with a <15% chance of being reduced within 20 years.  The viability of the different bear populations in Norway is discussed based on the minimum estimated number of females.  No population fulfills the above definition.  Future management should consequently be very restrictive to secure the small and scattered bear population in Norway for the future.

Stirling, Ian and Derocher, Andrew E. Factors affecting the evolution and behavioral ecology of the modern bears. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 189-204.

Abstract: The present distribution and abundance of the ursids is but an ephemeral reflection of an evolutionary path that began with the first identifiable bear, the dawn bear (Ursavus elmensis), 20 million years ago in the early Miocene epoch.  Although the dawn bear was only the size of a fox terrier, by the Pleistocene its desendents had evolved into some of the largest terrestrial carnivores the world has known.  Most bear species evolved in the northern hemisphere although some dispersed and reached South America, Africa and Southeast Asia.
     Each species had to cope with ecological changes that affected interspecific competition or the availability of food.  Apparently the black bear was sufficiently adapted to have survived largely unchanged from what it was like a million years ago.  Numerous species went extinct, leaving only the 8 still present today.  Some understanding of the evolutionary pressures that the modern bears have evolved through may help us to understand their behavioral ecology.
     During the Pleistocene, bears at higher latitudes grew large and ecologically plastic while those closer to the equator remained small and became ecological specialists, as predicted by Geist's (1987) dispersal theory.  Adaptations of the teeth of ancestral bear species allowed them to be both herbivores and carnivores.  This allowed them to develop large size and broad ecological plasticity.  Large body size enabled bears to conserve heat, capture large prey, defend carrion, travel great distances, and, as vegetation increased in the diet, to survive on qualitatively poorer food.  Quantity and quality of available food and the degree of sexual dimorphism influenced the size of the home range and the evolution of social behavior in each species.
     Bears show a great deal of individual variation in behavior and may exploit different subniches as a result of learned behavior.  Slight differences in phenotype may also influence exploitation of subniches. Recent literature indicates that some terrestrial bear species are more active predators than previously thought and some evidence suggest a degree of scaling between the size of bears and the size of their prey. Social signalling appears to have been influenced by life in forest habitats but is not well understood.  We give a preliminary interpretation of the social organization of the present day bears through the interactive framework of proximate ecological pressures, phylogenetic history, and learning.
     There are likely few populations of bears anywhere in the world whose behavior has not been significantly influenced by man.  This may confound our understanding of their behavior and ecology.  Remaining populations of bears may not be able to adapt successfully to the combined effects of human predation, disappearing habitat, and climatic change. 

Strickland, M. Dale. Grizzly bear recovery in the contiguous United States. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 5-9.

Abstract: The agencies responsible for the management of the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) have formed an interagency organization called the Interagency Grizzly Bear Committee (IGBC).  The Committee has developed guidelines for the management of bears and bear habitat that are being applied in 4 of the 5 ecosystems where populations of bears still exist in the contigous 48 states.  The Committee, through its members, has also endorsed and often funded research on habitat and grizzly bear populations.  The Committee currently has a task force assisting the U.S. Forest Service in their development of a cumulative effects model (CEM) that will use existing data on habitat and bears to evaluate the additive as well as individual effects of various activities on bears. Research is needed to validate CEM components.  Additional research is needed on social attitudes toward the grizzly bear, aversive conditioning, physiological effects of handling bears and population genetics.  Some small populations may need periodic injection of new genetic material.  A project evaluating population augmentation as a possible management tool to increase genetic diversity and population size is planned in the near future.  The Northern Continental Divide and Yellowstone populations appear secure and the former appears to have reached a recovered level.  It is important that the delisting process proceed in this population to confirm recovery, fulfill commitments to the public and assess our ability to manage grizzly bears without the protection of the Endangered Species Act.  It is also important to focus more attention on areas where the bear is less secure.  While past recovery efforts have concentrated on areas in the United States, it may be impossible to maintain a viable population in some border areas without including the bears and bear habitat provided by neighboring Canadian provinces.  To aid in this cooperation, the IGBC recently was expanded to include British Columbia and Alberta.

Stringham, Stephen F. Black bear reproductive rate relative to body weight in hunted populations. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 425-432.

Abstract: Litter size, natality (cubs per adult female per year), and maturation rate are positively related to body weights of adult males and females. This is shown by regressions of reproductive parameters on weight, using mean values from each of 7 hunted populations.  Maturation rates to weaning and adulthood are, respectively, proportional to the inverses of interbirth interval and age at first whelping, generation length. Assuming that weight is an index of nutritional status, these findings for black bear (Ursus americanus) are consistent with the typical mammalian dependence of reproductive rate on nutritional status.  Because body weights are commonly obtained by game managers, they may be a quick, inexpensive basis for estimating reproductive rate for populations where reproductive data are lacking.

Stringham, Stephen F. Grizzly bear reproductive rate relative to body size. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 433-443.

Abstract: Mean adult body sizes (BS) and reproductive parameters were compared across 12 populations of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos).  BS was assessed in terms of mean adult body weight (BW) and skull length (SL).  BWs of adult males and females are positively related to each other and to SL. As BS increases, litter size (C/L) and natality (C/L/IBI) tend to increase, while interbirth interval (IBI) and age at first whelping (AFW) decrease.  To the extent that IBI and AFW are inversely related to maturation rates to weaning and adulthood, respectively, these results indicate a positive relationship between maturation rate and BS in a population.  Both BW and SL are inexpensive predictors of reproductive rate reliable enough for management purposes where reproductive data are lacking.

Tsubota, Toshio, Kanagawa, Hiroshi, Mano, Tsutomu, and Aoi, Toshiki. Corpora albicantia and placental scars in the Hokkaido brown bear. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 125-128.

Abstract: The ovaries and uteri of 25 wild adult female Hokkaido brown bears (Ursus arctos yesoensis), killed by hunters during the March-May period from 1982 to 1986 in Hokkaido, Japan, were observed macroscopically and histologically for the presence of corpora albicantia (CA) and placental scars (PS).  The numbers of CA, PS and young were compared.  The female bears were classified into 4 groups: solitary females, females accompanied by their cubs, yearlings, or 2-year-old young.  CA were classified into 3 types (l, ll or lll) based on the degree of degeneration.  Of the 3 types, only type l CA were regarded as formed recently.  PS were classified into 2 types (new or old) according to size.  The relationship among numbers of Type l CA, PS and young was examined for each group of females.  Type l CA and new PS were observed in some solitary females.  These findings may mean the occurrence of embryo loss during delayed implantation, abortion after placentation, and/or death of young after birth. 

Van Daele, Lawrence J., Barnes, Victor G. Jr., and Smith, Roger B. Denning characteristics of brown bears on Kodiak Island, Alaska. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 257-267.

Abstract: Investigations of brown bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi) denning ecology in 2 areas of Kodiak Island, Alaska, revealed that subpopulations of bears living within 70 km of each other had developed noticeably different denning behaviors.  One hundred and fifteen radio-collared brown bears were located in 321 dens.  The relative order in which bears in various reproductive categories entered their dens was similar in both study areas; females entered dens earlier than most males, and pregnant females generally entered dens earliest.  Female bears in Southwest Kodiak, generally entered their dens 2 to 3 weeks later than their counterparts in the Terror Lake area.  We hypothesize that this variation was related to the relative food availability in the 2 areas during late autumn.  Emergence chronology was similar in both areas. Males were generally the 1st group to emerge from their dens, and females with new cubs were usually last.  Bears at Terror Lake preferred steep slopes in alpine habitat for den sites.  In Southwest Kodiak, midslope habitat and moderate slopes were preferred denning habitat.  Two areas with high concentrations of dens were identified in the Terror Lake area.  A high degree of fidelity to specific den sites was exhibited by individual brown bears on Kodiak.  Two notable anomalies in denning behavior were observed in this study; use of multiple dens by 27 bears and failure to enter dens by 8 bears.  Management implications of the differences in the denning ecology of these subpopulations are discussed. 

Wang, Ying The current status of Formosan black bear in Taiwan. 1990 International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8, 1-4.

Abstract: Due to recently increasing game exploitation and habitat fragmentation, the existence of Formosan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus formosanus) was thought to be endangered.  To assess the current status of this species, aboriginal hunters, forestry workers and game store owners were interviewed, and 6 field surveys were also conducted.  The results showed that this species was distributed mostly in mountains where the elevation is higher than 1,500 m; whereas in winter it could be seen in low elevation from 500 to 1,000 m.  From 1985-88, 32-60 bears were sighted by the forestry workers in 22 locations.  Most bears were found in Lala Mountain Reserve, Yushan National Park and Snow Mountain Area.  In addition, from our surveys, some bears were found in Tawu Mountain Reserve.
     At present, this species can fetch a price between $727 US and $7,274 US (x= $2,713 US, N=13) in the local market. This price is approximately 1/2 the annual income of an aboriginal hunter. Besides, over half the aboriginal hunters (N=97) were willing to catch the animal regardless of its fierceness. This species is widely favored by game store owners; about 91 bears were sold in game stores between 1985-1988.
     A decreasing bear population was reported by most of the game store owners, aboriginal hunters and forestry workers, as a result of unlimited hunting. To cope with the current crisis, the Council of Agriculture lega