Table of Contents Ursus 9           

Ames, Alison. Object manipulation in captive polar bears. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  9, 443-449.

Aumiller, Larry D. and Matt, Colleen A. Management of McNeil River State Game Sanctuary for viewing of brown bears. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 51-61.

Aune, Keith E. Comparative ecology of black and grizzly bears on the Rocky Mountain Front, Montana. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 365-374.

Aune, Keith E., Mace, Richard D., and Carney, Daniel W. The reproductive biology of female grizzly bears in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem with supplemental data from the Yellowstone Ecosystem. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 451-458.

Baekken, Bjornt, Elgmork, Kåre, and Wabakken, Petter. The Vassfaret brown bear population in central-south Norway no longer detectable. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 179-185.

Banci, Vivian, Demarchi, Dennis A., and Archibald, W. Ralph. Evaluation of the population status of grizzly bears in Canada. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 129-142.

Barnes, Victor G. Jr. Brown bear-human interactions associated with deer hunting on Kodiak Island. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 63-73.

Beringer, Jeff, Seibert, Steven G., and Pelton, Michael R. Transmitter drops as a technique for detecting black bear habitat use. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 303-307.

Burton, Timothy, Koch, Donald, Updike, Douglas, and Brody, Alan MD. Evaluation of the potential effects of sport hunting on California black bears. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 231-235.

Carrel, William K. Reproductive history of female black bears from dental cementum. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 205-212.

Chestin, Igor E. Some comments on different methods of counting brown bear, Ursus arctos L., 1758, populations used in the former USSR. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 295-299.

Clark, Joseph D., Clapp, Daniel L., Smith, Kimberly G., and Ederington, Belinda. Black bear habitat use in relation to food availability in the interior highlands of Arkansas. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 309-318.

Clarkson, Peter L. and Liepins, I. Sarma. Grizzly bear population estimate and characteristics in the Anderson and Horton Rivers Area, Northwest Territories, 1987-89. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 213-221.

Costello, Cecily M. and Sage, Richard W. Jr. Predicting black bear habitat selection from food abundance under 3 forest management systems. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 375-387.

Craighead, Lance, Vyse, Ernie R., and Reynolds, Harry V. III. Paternity determination with DNA fingerprinting in a grizzly population. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 529-531.

Danilov, Pyotr. The brown bear of northwest Russia. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 199-203.

Fagen, Johanna M. and Fagen, Robert. Bear-human interactions at Pack Creek, Alaska. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 109-114.

Folk, G. Edgar Jr., Cooper, Paul S., and Folk, Mary A. A method for comparing polar bears eating nearly 100% fat with fasted bears. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 459-460.

France, Thomas. Politics, forest management, and bears. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 523-528.

French, Steven P., French, Marilynn G., and Knight, Richard R. Grizzly bear use of army cutworm moths in the Yellowstone Ecosystem. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 389-399.

Gaines, William L., Naney, Robert H., Morrison, Peter H., Eby, James R., Wooten, George F., and Almack, Jon A. Use of Landsat multispectral scanner imagery and geographic information systems to map vegetation in the North Cascades Grizzly Bear Ecosystem . 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 533-547.

Garner, Gerald W., Belikov, Stanislav E., Stishov, Mikial S., Barnes, Victor G. Jr., and Arthur, Stephen M. Dispersal patterns of maternal polar bears from the denning concentration on Wrangel Island . 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 401-410.

Gao, Y. T. From hunting, to capturing, to breeding the black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus). 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 143-144.

Gillin, Colin M., Hammond, Forrest M., and Peterson, Craig M. Evaluation of an aversive conditioning technique used on female grizzly bears in the Yellowstone Ecosystem. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 503-512.

Gunther, Kerry A. Bear management in Yellowstone National Park, 1960-93. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 549-560.

Hayes, Stephen G. and Pelton, Michael R. Habitat characteristics of female black bear dens in northwestern Arkansas . 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 411-418.

Hazumi, Toshihiro. Status of Japanese black bear. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 145-148.

Herrera, Anne-Marie, Nassar, Janet, Michelangeli, Fabian, Rodriguez, Jon Paul, and Torres, Denis. The spectacled bear in the Sierra Nevada National Park of Venezuela. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 149-156.

Herrero, Stephen. The Canadian national parks and grizzly bear ecosystems:  the need for interagency management. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 7-21.

Kalabér, Lászlò, Negrutiu, Aurel, Micu, Ioan, Dogaru, Anton, and Brateanu, Mihai. Distribution and ecology of brown bear in Romania. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 173-178.

Kasbohm, John W., Vaughan, Michael R., and Kraus, James G. Behavioral responses of black bears to gypsy moth infestation in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 461-470.

Kasworm, Wayne F. and Thier, Timothy J. Adult black bear reproduction, survival, and mortality sources in northwest Montana. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 223-230.

Kellert, Stephen R. Public attitudes toward bears and their conservation. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 43-50.

Koch, Donald B. Biopolitical management of mountain lions, tule elk, and black bears in California. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 561-566.

Kolenosky, George B., Pond, Bruce A., and Abraham, Kenneth F. Population characteristics of polar bears in southern Hudson Bay. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 301.

Lee, John and Taylor, Mitchell. Aspects of the polar bear harvest in the Northwest Territories, Canada. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 237-243.

Ma. Y.Q. Conservation and utilization of the bear resources in China. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 157-159.

Mace, Richard D., Manley, Timothy L., and Aune, Keith E. Factors affecting the photographic detection rate of grizzly bears in the Swan Mountains, Montana. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 245-251.

Mano, Tsutomu. Home range and habitat use of brown bears in the southwestern Oshima Peninsula, Hokkaido. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 319-325.

Martinka, Cliff J. Reflections on the recent history of bears. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 1-5.

McCarthy, Thomas M. and Seavoy, Roger J. Reducing nonsport losses attributable to food conditioning:  human and bear behavior modification in an urban environment. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 75-84.

McClellan, Bruce and Reiner, David C. A review of bear evolution. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 85-96.

McLaughlin, Craig R., Matula, George J. Jr., and O'Connor, Raymond J. Synchronous reproduction by Maine black bears. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 471-479.

McLean, Peter K. and Pelton, Michael R. Estimates of population density and growth of black bears in the Smoky Mountains. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 253-261.

Mertzanis, George A. Brown bear in Greece:  distribution, present status--ecology of a northern Pindus subpopulation. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 187-197.

Miller, Sterling D. Black bear reproduction and cub survivorship in south-central Alaska. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 263-273.

Mills, Judy and Servheen, Christopher. The Asian trade in bears and bear parts:  impacts and conservation recommendations. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 161-167.

Moir, William H. and Huckaby, Laurie S. Displacement ecology of trees near upper timberline              . 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 35-42.

Noyce, Karen V. and Garshelis, David L. Body size and blood characteristics as indicators of condition and reproductive performance in black bears. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 481-496.

Obbard, Martyn E. and Kolenosky, George B. Seasonal movements of female black bears in the boreal forest of Ontario in relation to timber harvesting. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 363.

Olson, Tamara L. and Gilbert, Barrie K. Variable impacts of people on brown bear use of an Alaskan river. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 97-106.

Pacas, Charles J. and Paquet, Paul C. Analysis of black bear home range using a Geographic Information System. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 419-425.

Peyton, Bernard. Conservation in the developing world:  ideas on how to proceed. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 115-127.

Picton, Harold D. and Kendall, Katherine C. Chromatographic (TLC) differentiation of grizzly bear and black bear scats. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 497-501.

Reid, Donald G. The focus and role of biological research in giant panda conservation. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Management 9, 23-33.

Revenko, Igor A. Brown bear (Ursus arctos piscator) reaction to humans on Kamchatka. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 107-108.

Riley, Shawn J., Aune, Keith, Mace, Richard D., and Madel, Michael J. Translocation of nuisance grizzly bears in northwestern Montana. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 567-573.

Rossell, C. Reed Jr. and Litvaitis, John A. Application of harvest data to examine responses of black bears to land-use changes. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 275-281.

Schoen, John W., Flynn, Rodney W., Suring, Lowell H., Titus, Kimberly, and Beier, Lavern R. Habitat-capability model for brown bear in southeast Alaska. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 327-337.

Schooley, Robert L., McLaughlin, Craig R., Krohn, William B., and Matula, George J. Jr. Spatiotemporal patterns of macrohabitat use by female black bears during fall. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 339-348.

Sellers, Richard A. and Aumiller, Larry D. Brown bear population characteristics at McNeil River, Alaska. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 283-293.

Smith, Martin E., Hechtel, John L., and Follmann, Erich H. Black bear denning ecology in interior Alaska. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 513-522.

Swanson, Cindy Sorg, McCollum, Daniel W., and Maj, Mary. Insights into the economic value of grizzly bears in the Yellowstone Recovery Zone. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 575-582.

Weaver, Keith M. and Pelton, Michael R. Denning ecology of black bears in the Tensas River Basin of Louisiana. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 427-433.

Wooding, John B. and Hardisky, Thomas S. Home range, habitat use, and mortality of black bears in north-central Florida. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 349-356.

Xu, L. Y.Q. Ma, Z. X. Gao, and F.Y. Liu. Characteristics of dens and selection of denning habitat for bears in the South Xiaoxinganling Mountains, China. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 357-362.

Yerena, Edgard and Torres, Denis. Spectacled bear conservation and dispersal corridors in Venezuela. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 169-172.

Young, Donald D. Jr., McCabe, Thomas R., Garner, Gerald W., and Reynolds, Harry V. III. Use of a distance-based test of independence to measure grizzly bear-caribou association in northeastern Alaska. 1994. International Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 435-442.

Ursus 9

Abstracts

Ames, Alison. Object manipulation in captive polar bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage.  9, 443-449. 1994.

Abstract: Data, with special reference to object manipulation, were collected on 14 polar bears (Ursus maritimus) held in 8 zoos in the British Isles.  More than 1,200 hours of observations were collected from 1989 to 1991.  Time scans were made at 5-minute intervals and focal event sampling provided information on object selection, bout length, and behavior on land and in water.  Analyses included individual and sex differences in amount, frequency, and complexity of object manipulation.  The male bears had higher levels of object manipulation overall, but 24% of the females' manipulative bouts were longer than those of the males.  Bout frequencies indicated an organizational difference between the sexes with all but 1 of the females having fewer sessions per hour.  Responses to a wide range of objects and food items were recorded and categorized. Findings indicated that the behavioral repertoire of polar bears was more diverse than expected and that bears of all ages and both sexes showed a high level of motivation, ability, and skill toward this kind of activity.

Aumiller, Larry D. and Matt, Colleen A. Management of McNeil River State Game Sanctuary for viewing of brown bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 51-61. 1994.

Abstract: Since a management plan was developed in 1973, the McNeil River State Game Sanctuary has become internationally famous as a spectacular wildlife viewing opportunity.  A restricted number of human visitors interact in proximity with wild brown bears (Ursus arctos) that congregate at the McNeil River Falls to fish for chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta).  Brown bear habituation is defined and described.  In the 21 years since the management plan has been in effect bear use has doubled, no bear has had to be destroyed or removed from the sanctuary, and no human has been injured.  This program illustrates that humans and brown bears can co-exist peacefully particularly when humans behave in appropriate ways.

Aune, Keith E. Comparative ecology of black and grizzly bears on the Rocky Mountain Front, Montana. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 365-374. 1994.

Abstract: Seven black bears (Ursus americanus) were radiomonitored during 1981-84 in conjunction with a long-term study of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos).  Grizzly and black bear food habits, home ranges, habitat use, and denning habits were compared within the composite home range of all radio-instrumented black bears.  Trapping effort per capture for each species was compared in 6 bear management units for the period 1980-87.  Differences in habitat use and denning habitat were evident.  Black bears used the forested habitats more frequently than did grizzlies.  Grizzly bears utilized riparian and open habitat components habitats more frequently than did black bears.  Grizzly bear dens were on steeper slopes and at higher elevations than black bear dens.  Subtle differences in food habits were detected.  Less effort was necessary to capture black bears in bear management units with lower grizzy densities.  Grizzly bears avoided habitats within 300m of open roads while black bears avoided habitats within 100m of open roads.

Aune, Keith E., Mace, Richard D., and Carney, Daniel W. The reproductive biology of female grizzly bears in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem with supplemental data from the Yellowstone Ecosystem. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 451-458. 1994.

Abstract: We analyzed reproductive performance and litter survival for all Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (NCDE) grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) killed or radioinstrumented, 1969-91.  Reproductive tracts of 48 female grizzly bears from Montana and Wyoming were described morphologically and examined for corpora lutea and graafian follicles to estimate reproductive potentials for bears in the conterminous United States.  The average number of corpus lutea was 2.29. Average cub and yearling litter size was 2.14 and 2.34.  Cub survival in the NCDE was 0.887 and yearling survival was 0.863.  Sixteen reproductive intervals in the NCDE from 10 individual bears averaged 2.69 years.  The minimum age of reproduction in the NCDE varied from 4 to 7 and averaged 5.7 years.  Survival of known first litters was not less than survival for litters of experienced females.

Baekken, Bjornt, Elgmork, Kåre, and Wabakken, Petter. The Vassfaret brown bear population in central-south Norway no longer detectable. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 179-185. 1994.

Abstract: Until recently, the Vassfaret area has been the last well-documented area inhabited by brown bears (Ursus arctos) in central-south Norway.  In an intensive bear survey during 1990-91 a total distance of 3,126 km of line transects was examined.  No bear tracks or other signs of bears were discovered, and the Vassfaret area probably does not support a brown bear population any more.  An 18-year-old female shot in 1956 was the last brown bear known to have been killed in this region of Norway.  The distribution of bear reports from 1956 to 1988 support the hypothesis that the presence of bear may be explained by the continued presence of one or a few females born before 1956.

Banci, Vivian, Demarchi, Dennis A., and Archibald, W. Ralph. Evaluation of the population status of grizzly bears in Canada. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 129-142. 1994.

Abstract: The population status of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in Canada was evaluated within broad areas called grizzly bear zones.  These zones are large, contiguous areas where the climate and landforms provide a common influence  on vegetation and land-use activities, and thus on grizzly bear behavior and populations.  Of the 14 grizzly bear zones that historically supported populations, 12 currently support populations.  We describe past and current land-use activities that impact habitats and populations of grizzly bears and predict future impacts.  Gross analyses at the level of the grizzly bear zone identified probable unsustainable annual kills and excessive female kills for many of the grizzly bear zones.  Population status was evaluated by comparing an estimate of current numbers to the estimated potential of the land to support grizzly bears.  Grizzly bears have been extirpated from 24% of their original range and 63% of the current range is designated at risk, either vulnerable or threatened.  The 4 grizzly bear zones in which grizzly bears are not at risk face increased impacts from land-use practices within the next 5 years.  We discuss the implications of the designation of population status and make recommendations to ensure the conservation of grizzly bears.

Barnes, Victor G. Jr. Brown bear-human interactions associated with deer hunting on Kodiak Island. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 63-73. 1994.

Abstract: I compared distribution and range of brown bears (Ursus arctos middendorffi) with temporal and spatial distribution of Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis) hunting activity on westside Kodiak Island, Alaska, to examine impacts of deer hunting on bears.  Mean number of bears that annually ranged _ 5 km inland from the coast, or in both areas was 10, 8, and 11, respectively.  Bears that exclusively or seasonally occupied the coast zone were usually classed as having moderate or high potential to interact with hunters because most hunter access and effort (>95%) was via the coast.  Bears that ranged exclusively inland were considered unlikely to encounter hunters. Animals that ranged in both zones often (39%) moved inland during fall (Oct-Dec) and most bears (70%) denned in the inland zone.  Females that denned near the coast entered dens later (x = 22 Nov) than females that denned inland (x = 12 Nov).  Two radio-collared bears were known to raid deer-hunting camps and 9 other marked bears were observed by hunters or were located <200 m from hunting camps.  Deer-hunter surveys revealed that more than two-thirds of the deer harvest occurred during October-November.  About half of the hunters observed at least 1 bear during their hunt.  Seven to 21% of the respondents reported having a threatening encounter with a bear and 5-26% reported losing deer meat to bears.  Human-induced mortality to radio-collared bears occurred more often near the coast (5) than inland (3); 7 bears were harvested by sport hunters and 1 was killed (nonsport) in a Native village.  Deer hunters killed 2 unmarked females in defense of life or property situations in the study area.  High bear densities and concentrated deer-hunting activity combine to make conflicts unavoidable.  Adverse impacts to bears can be minimized by maintaining low levels of human activity in inland areas and improving hunter awareness of bear ecology and behavior.

Beringer, Jeff, Seibert, Steven G., and Pelton, Michael R. Transmitter drops as a technique for detecting black bear habitat use. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 303-307. 1994.

Abstract: We developed a transmitter drop technique that improved interpretation of habitat-use data by black bears (Ursus americanus).  The study was conducted in Harmon Den Bear Sanctuary, Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina, during 1985-87.  To assess the accuracy and value of transmitter drops, habitat-use data obtained with this technique was compared to those collected using conventional aerial and ground tracking.  We used 1,697 ground locations, 204 aerial locations, and 111 transmitter drops to determine the habitat types used by 14 radio-tagged female black bears.  Habitat use, as determined by the 3 trackiing methods, varied among methods.  Ground tracking suggested bears used white oak (Quercus alba)-red oak (Q. rubra)-hickory (Carya spp.) cover types more than expected and yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipfera) cover types less than expected in 1986-87.  During 1985 ground tracking suggested bears used all cover types in proportion to availability.  Aerial telemetry suggested bears avoided yellow poplar stands over all years.  Data from transmitter drops detected differences in habitat use for all years.  Yellow poplar-white oak-northern red oak and chestnut oak (Q. pinus) cover types were used more than expected and nonforest, pine (Pinus spp.), mixed hardwood, and yellow poplar stands were used less than expected.

Burton, Timothy, Koch, Donald, Updike, Douglas, and Brody, Alan MD. Evaluation of the potential effects of sport hunting on California black bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 231-235. 1994.

Abstract: Requirements to comply with environmental laws require annual evaluation of the impacts of hunting on black bear (Ursus americanus) and the environment in California.  Historical management was custodial and earlier investigations indicated that illegal kill was a major mortality factor.  Since 1982, madatory tag returns and presentation of skulls for aging have increased the amount and quality of data.  The level of illegally killed bears has declined since dog training was prohibited in bear habitat during spring and summer.  Hunting and harvest quotas have been established.  Current harvest levels are thought to be about 8% of the population.  Data indicate that hunting mortality has little negative effect on the population and hunting mortality is thought to be compensatory.

Carrel, William K. Reproductive history of female black bears from dental cementum. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 205-212. 1994.

Abstract: Dental cellular cementum deposition (DCD) was studied in black bears (Ursus  americanus) in Arizona between 1973 and 1990.  Cub production and cub survival were monitored for 17 adult (>4 years) females.  First premolars were later collected from these females; 11 had received intramuscular oxytetracycline injections to label cementum.  Annual DCD layer measurements were made from transverse sections of first premolars. Dental cellular cementum deposition measurements were standardized by calculating a proportional width for each cementum layer to compensate for individual differences in cementum growth rate.  Age effects on cementum growth rate were removed prior to analyses.  Pairwise comparisons, after individual and age differences were removed, revealed that female DCD was reduced (P = 0.003) during years when cubs were successfully raised compared to years when the same females produced no cubs.  Female DCD was also reduced (P = 0.018) during years of successful cub rearing compared to years when cubs were produced but lost.  A predictive model with confidence intervals was developed to allow estimation of reproductive history for female black bears from dental cementum deposition.

Clark, Joseph D., Clapp, Daniel L., Smith, Kimberly G., and Ederington, Belinda. Black bear habitat use in relation to food availability in the interior highlands of Arkansas. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 309-318. 1994.

Abstract: A black bear (Ursus americanus) food value index (FVI) was developed and calculated for forest cover type classifications on Ozark Mountain (White Rock) and Ouachita Mountain (Dry Creek) study areas in western Arkansas.  FVIs are estimates of bear food production capabilities of the major forest cover types and were calculated using percent cover, mean fruit production scorings, and the dietary percentage of each major plant food species as variables.  Goodness-of-fit analyses were used to determine use of forest cover types by 23 radio-collared female bears.  Habitat selection by forest cover type was not detected on White Rock but was detected on Dry Creek.  Use of habitats on Dry Creek appeared to be related to food production with the exception of regeneration areas, which were used less than expected but had a high FVI ranking.  In general, pine cover types had low FVI rankings and were used less than expected by bears.  Forest management implications are discussed.

Clarkson, Peter L. and Liepins, I. Sarma. Grizzly bear population estimate and characteristics in the Anderson and Horton Rivers Area, Northwest Territories, 1987-89. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 213-221. 1994.

Abstract: A population estimate of 141 (95% CI, 131-126) grizzly bears (> 2 yrs old) was determined using a modified Lincoln-Petersen estimate.  Reducing the number of marks available in the study area by 10%/year to compensate for lack of population closure resulted in a population estimate of 127 (95% CI, 118-248) bears (> 2 yrs old).  Bear densities in the study area were 9.1 bears/1,000 km² for the standard Lincoln-Petersen estimate and 8.2 bears/1,000 km² for the adjusted Lincoln-Petersen estimate.  During the 3-year research period, 154 bears (97 females, 57 males) (all ages) were captured and marked.  The sex ratio of the population for all ages was 67% females and 33% males.  A minimum population estimate of 102 bears (67 females, 35 males) (> 2 yrs old) was calculated for the study area by only including captured bears.  Bear distribution throughout the study area was clumped with bears concentrating along river and creek valleys.  Fourteen bears from the area died during the research period.

Costello, Cecily M. and Sage, Richard W. Jr. Predicting black bear habitat selection from food abundance under 3 forest management systems. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 375-387. 1994.

Abstract: Food is considered to be a primary influence on black bear (Ursus americanus) habitat selection, however relative abundance of foods among habitats is rarely quantified.  We measured seasonal food abundance within 17 habitats in the central Adirondack Mountains of New York and used food abundance indices to predict habitat selection.  Managed habitats provided the highest abundance of spring foods and summer fruit. Nonmanaged and uneven-aged managed hardwood habitats provided the highest amounts of beechnuts (Fagus grandifolia), a primary fall food.  Analysis of habitat-use data from 5 female black bears monitored during 1989-91 suggested that habitat selection was greatly influenced by food abundance.  Seasonal shifts in habitat use were related to changes in food resources.  Bears used habitats with high food abundance more than expected and habitats with low food abundance less than expected (P = 0.05).  Habitat diversity within a bear home range appears to be beneficial.  Management implications are discussed.

Craighead, Lance, Vyse, Ernie R., and Reynolds, Harry V. III. Paternity determination with DNA fingerprinting in a grizzly population. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 529-531. 1994.

Abstract: We extracted DNA from 120 grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) in an arctic population for paternity analysis using DNA fingerprinting.  Preliminary results indicate that a combination of several probes and/or enzymes will be necessary to identify sires of offspring with known mothers.  Development of genetic profiles will provide estimates of population genetics parameters such as inbreeding coefficients, heterozygosity, and degree of polymorphism to use as a baseline in managing this and other, more endangered, populations.  We present these preliminary results in order to inform others of the direction of our research and to facilitate sample collection and lab work in other studies.

Fagen, Johanna M. and Fagen, Robert. Bear-human interactions at Pack Creek, Alaska. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 109-114. 1994.

Abstract: Brown bears (Ursus actos) and humans come into close proximity and interact at Pack Creek, Admiralty Island, Alaska, a long-established site for recreational brown bear viewing.  We conducted direct behavioral observations of bear-human interactions at Pack Creek using ad-lib sampling methods supplemented by fine-grained videotape analysis. Our observations yielded a behavioral classification of common types of human-bear interactions.  We defined 3 distinct interaction types a priori and confirmed these classes by statistical analysis of behavioral frequencies.  Analysis of bear-human interactions can contribute to the scientific basis for managing human activity in brown bear habitat.

Folk, G. Edgar Jr., Cooper, Paul S., and Folk, Mary A. A method for comparing polar bears eating nearly 100% fat with fasted bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 459-460. 1994.

Abstract: Plasma lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol) from polar bears (Ursus maritimus) fed a nearly 100% seal fat diet and from fasted bears are compared.  Fasted bears had plasma with more triglycerides and cholesterol than fed bears.  Fatty acid composition of both triglycerides and cholesterol differed between fed and fasted bears.  Omega-3 fatty acids (found in seal fat) were higher in both plasma lipids from fed bears than fasted bears.

France, Thomas. Politics, forest management, and bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 523-528. 1994.

Abstract: Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) recovery in the western states has been hampered by poor interagency cooperation, minimal attention to habitat protection, and continuing degradation of habitat on both private and public lands.  Some positive actions, such as increased research and agency focus on mortality reduction, have taken place.  I advocate the adoption of mandatory standards for U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service land-management actions such as road building and cumulative effects analysis, and greater attention by both Forest Service and U.S. Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service to the Endangered Species Act mandate to develop programs to improve grizzly habitat.

French, Steven P., French, Marilynn G., and Knight, Richard R. Grizzly bear use of army cutworm moths in the Yellowstone Ecosystem. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 389-399. 1994.

Abstract: The ecology af alpine aggregations of army cutworm moths (Euxoa auxiliaris) and the feeding behavior of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) at these areas were studied in the Yellowstone ecosystem from 1988 to 1991.  Army cutworm moths migrate to mountain regions each summer to feed at night on the nectar of alpine and subalpine flowers and during the day they seek shelter under various rock formations.  Grizzly bears were observed feeding almost exclusively on moths up to 3 months each summer at the 10 moth-aggregation areas we identified.  Fifty-one different grizzly bears were observed feeding at 4 of these areas during a single day in August 1991.  Army cutworm moths are a preferred source of nutrition for many grizzly bears in the Yellowstone ecosystem and represent a high quality food that is available during hyperphagia. 

Gaines, William L., Naney, Robert H., Morrison, Peter H., Eby, James R., Wooten, George F., and Almack, Jon A. Use of Landsat multispectral scanner imagery and geographic information systems to map vegetation in the North Cascades Grizzly Bear Ecosystem . Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 533-547. 1994.

Abstract: Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) imagery and a ground-based vegetative inventory were used to develop a map of vegetation for the North Cascades Grizzly Bear Ecosystem (NCGBE).  An assessment of the interpreted data showed a 95% accuracy level for the general vegetation types and 92% for detailed vegetation types.  Additional data layers were developed in a geographic information system (GIS) to evaluate the availability and distribution of vegetation types on a seasonal basis, assess the impacts of human activities on the habitat, assess ungulate food sources, and estimate the abundance of bear foods in various vegetation types.  These technologies proved useful in evaluating the suitability of the ecosystem to support grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis).

Garner, Gerald W., Belikov, Stanislav E., Stishov, Mikial S., Barnes, Victor G. Jr., and Arthur, Stephen M. Dispersal patterns of maternal polar bears from the denning concentration on Wrangel Island . Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 401-410. 1994.

Abstract: Twenty-one female polar bears (Ursus maritimus) accompanied by cubs of the year were fitted with satellite transmitters upon emergence from maternal dens on Wrangel Island during spring 1990.  Movements during the following year indicated no subsequent geographic segregation in the Chukchi or East Siberian seas of females that denned in various regions of Wrangel Island.  Movements encompassed the eastern half of the East Siberian Sea, the entire Chukchi Sea, extreme western portions of the Beaufort Sea, and portions of the Bering Sea lying north of Saint Matthew Island.  One-third of the marked females over-wintered in the active shear zone, which lies along the northern shoreline of the Chukotka Peninsula in Soviet territory.

Gillin, Colin M., Hammond, Forrest M., and Peterson, Craig M. Evaluation of an aversive conditioning technique used on female grizzly bears in the Yellowstone Ecosystem. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 503-512. 1994.

Abstract: Behavioral responses to aversive conditioning techniques by nuisance, radio-collared female grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) were studied in the Yellowstone ecosystem during 1986-89.  Five females, 2 accompanied by their young, were treated 27 times with an aversive conditioning agent paired with a conditioned stimulus.  Sample sizes were too small to fully evaluate responses to the conditioning stimulus, but positive trends occurred.  When the aversive agent was applied, all bears responded by running from the trial site without displaying aggression.  Capturing nuisance bears and removing the unnatural attractants often caused the bears to leave the problem area and precluded testing.  No nuisance adult male grizzly bears engaged in nuisance behavior following initial capture and radiocollaring.  Attempts to aversive condition an underweight, subadult female with poor dentition failed.  This report includes recommendations for further application of aversive conditioning techniques on grizzly bears in the Yellowstone ecosystem.

Gunther, Kerry A. Bear management in Yellowstone National Park, 1960-93. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 549-560. 1994.

Abstract: From 1931 through 1959, an average of 48 people per year was injured by bears within Yellowstone National Park (YNP).  In 1960, YNP implemented a bear management program designed to reduce the number of bear-caused human injuries and property damages occurring with YNP and to re-establish bears in a natural state.  Although the 1960 program included some efforts to reduce the human food and garbage sources that were attracting bears into developed areas and roadside corridors, most management effort went into the removal of potentially hazardous bears and those bears that damaged property in search of human foods.  After 10 years (1960-1969) of the program, 332 nuisance black bears (Ursus americanus) and 39 nuisance grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis ) had been removed from the population.  However, the number of bear-caused human injuries within YNP had decreased only slightly, to an  average of 45 per year.  In 1970, YNP initiated a new, more intensive bear management program with the objectives of restoring the grizzly bear and black bear populations to subsistence on natural forage and reducing the number of bear-caused injuries to humans.  Management involved eliminating the sources of human food and garbage that attracted bears into developed areas and along roadsides, the source of most bear-human conflicts.  During the first 3 years of the program, bear-caused human injuries decreased significantly to an average of 10 per year.  During the same period, an average of 38 grizzly bears and 23 black bears per year were trapped and translocated from roadsides and developed areas to backcountry areas.  In addition, an average of 12 grizzly bears and 6 black bears per year, were removed from the population.  After 1972, the number of bear-human conflicts as well as the number of bear management control actions declined significantly.  A modified bear management program similar to the 1970 program, but with greater emphasis on habitat protection in backcountry areas, was implemented in 1983.  Since 1983, bear-caused human injuries have declined to an average of 1 per year and the number of nuisance bears translocated (grizzly bears = 4/yr, black bears = 2/yr) as well as the number of incorrigible bears removed from the population (grizzly bears = 1/yr, black bears = 0.4/yr) has also declined significantly from earlier periods.  During the first years of these management programs, most bear-human conflicts involved food-conditioned bears that aggressively sought human foods.  In more recent years, management problems have involved habituated (but not food-conditioned) bears seeking natural foods within developed areas and along roadsides.

Hayes, Stephen G. and Pelton, Michael R. Habitat characteristics of female black bear dens in northwestern Arkansas . Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 411-418. 1994.

Abstract: Twenty-nine radio-collared female black bears (Ursus americanus) were tracked to 48 den sites during winters 1988-89 and 1989-90, in the Ouachita and Ozark mountains of Arkansas, to study den selection and habitat.  Bears on both areas used rock cavity dens most often (66.6%), followed by excavations (12.5%), open nests (4.2%), and tree cavities (4.2%).  Multivariate models detected significant habitat component differences among rock, excavation, and clearcut dens (P < 0.05).  Black bears selected dens that were physically different, but functionally similar.  Rock cavity dens occurred on steep slopes, within structurally secure cavities, far from external disturbances.  Excavation and clearcut dens lacked permanent structure, but security was compensated by dense understory vegetation and increased horizontal cover.  It is not known if survival was also compensated at excavation and clearcut dens; this question should be addressed so reliable information on the relationship between den-type availability and cub production and survival can be incorporated into bear management plans.

Hazumi, Toshihiro. Status of Japanese black bear. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 145-148. 1994.

Abstract: This report reviews the status of Japanese black bear (Selanarctos thibetanus japonicus), and proposes a conservation plan for this species.  Ten thousand black bears are estimated to live in Japan as estimated by distribution of data and density estimates of 0.11-0.18 bears/km².  Annual harvest is more than 2,000.  More than 1,000 bears are killed as pests on plantations for depredations on agricultural products and other bear-human conflicts throughout the active bear season.  The government does not manage black bears on the biological basis of hunting seasons, numbers, sex, or age at harvest.  High commercial value of gallbladder threatens Japanese bears as in other Asian countries.  Bear habitat was diminished by timber cutting for resources during the World War II period.  (The rapid economic growth of Japan has been inadvertently consuming bear habitat all over the world.)  For the conservation of bears, social education is necessary along with proper management of hunting and habitat on a biological basis.

Herrera, Anne-Marie, Nassar, Janet, Michelangeli, Fabian, Rodriguez, Jon Paul, and Torres, Denis. The spectacled bear in the Sierra Nevada National Park of Venezuela. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 149-156. 1994.

Abstract: The spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus), is a threatened species that inhabits the Andean zones of South America.  Its threatened status is due primarily to deforestation and hunting pressure.  Its future in Venezuela depends on the populations that remain in national parks.  The Sierra Nevada National Park (Mérida and Barinas States, Venezuela) is one of the most important parks for bears in Venezuela.  During 1990 and 1991, PROVITA undertook an ethnozoological study in this national park to determine significant human-bear interactions.  This study was used to define priorities for conducting an environmental education program in the park, with the spectacled bear as the key to this program.  Eighty-six personal interviews concerning the spectacled bear were carried out in 35 sites within and bordering the park.  Hunting pressure is greater outside than within the park.   The presence of the park seems to be more effective in protecting the bears than general laws prohibiting bear hunting.  In the southwestern part of the park the hunting pressure is especially high, and this zone should have the highest priority for urgent action.  The most important changes needed are modification of the cattle raising system employed in the zone and the transformation of the mythical beliefs held about this animal.

Herrero, Stephen. The Canadian national parks and grizzly bear ecosystems:  the need for interagency management. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 7-21. 1994.

Abstract: Canada's current grizzly/brown bear (Ursus arctos) population estimate is between 22,000 and 28,000.  The grizzlies' range can be subdivided into 14 biophysically based zones.  Banci (1991) classified the grizzly as extinct in 2, threatened in 1, vulnerable in 7, and secure in 4.  This documents the need for future-oriented, proactive planning to protect grizzly bear populations in the face of development.  Through a survey, all provinces, territories, and national parks having grizzly bears were contacted and their opinions were sought regarding grizzly bear status, threats, and the role of reserves for long-term conservation of viable grizzly bear populations.  All respondents believed that the concept of a strictly protected core area and a surrounding region managed to allow limited, carefully regulated resource development, but planned to minimally impact grizzly bears, would be an important component of long-term grizzly bear conservation.  I concluded that creation of a new system of such reserves for grizzly bears and other highly mobile species was unlikely.  I suggest that the already established 10 national parks of Canada that have grizzly bears could form at least major parts of the strictly protected areas.  At least enough land surrounding each park would need to be managed to protect grizzly bear habitat and populations so as to give a high probability of population viability.  Canadian national parks by themselves only protect approximately 3.4-4.4% of Canada's grizzly bears so interagency cooperation would be necessary to protect viable populations in larger grizzly bear ecosystems.  The need for and progress toward interagency management is discussed with respect to each Canadian national park having grizzly bears.  Means of forming interagency management teams are identified.  The legislative, policy, and managerial ability of the Canadian national parks to protect grizzly bear habitat and populations is discussed and found to be good enough to allow national parks to function as protected cores.  Cooperation from territories and provinces in the management of grizzly ecosystems will depend on public support.

Kasbohm, John W., Vaughan, Michael R., and Kraus, James G. Behavioral responses of black bears to gypsy moth infestation in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 461-470. 1994.

Abstract: During 1986-89 nearly 27,000 ha of Shenandoah National Park (SNP) were defoliated by the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), inflicting wide-spread habitat alteration, overstory cover loss, and hard mast failure.  Gypsy moth primary hosts were the oaks (Quercus spp.), which comprised 55% of the study area.  We examined aspects of black bear (Ursus americanus) habitat use during years (1987-89) of extensive defoliation and compared the results to predefoliation years (Garner 1986).  In all seasons, relative habitat use differed between the time periods.  Females used cove hardwood and black locust more, especially in late summer and early fall, because of cherry abundance.  Bears did not avoid defoliated habitat in summer during peak defoliation, nor did they increase use of gypsy moth nonhost stands (e.g., yellow poplar [Liriodendron tulipifera]).  In fall, bears avoided defoliation and preferred chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) only in October, corresponding with fall excursions made by 21 of 50 females.  Although oak habitats were preferred in fall prior to defoliation for acorn consumption, most bears in this study did not move away from defoliation to areas of abundant hard mast.

Kasworm, Wayne F. and Thier, Timothy J. Adult black bear reproduction, survival, and mortality sources in northwest Montana. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 223-230. 1994.

Abstract: Black bear (Ursus americanus) research was conducted from 1983 to 1992 in northwest Montana.  During this period 319 individual black bears were captured, of which 177 were adults _ 5 years old.  Forty-eight of the adult bears were fitted with radio transmitters.  Capture information and radio monitoring indicated that the age of the first successful reproduction was _ 6 years old, mean litter size was 1.75 cubs, and the mean interval between litters was 3.2 years.  Based on this information, a minimum sustainable annual survival rate of 0.88 was estimated.  Estimates of survival using the Kaplan-Meier procedure for adult bears _ 5 years old were 0.73 for males (n = 21) and 0.79 for females (n = 27).  Hunting was the single largest source of mortality for males.  Hunting and illegal mortality were equally high for females. Levels of mortality and potential sources of bias are discussed.

Koch, Donald B. Biopolitical management of mountain lions, tule elk, and black bears in California. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 561-566. 1994.

Abstract: The hunting of mountain lions (Felis concolor), tule elk (Cervus elaphus nannodes), black bears (Ursus americanus), and other mammals has become controversial in California.  Litigation by animal protection groups has resulted in several rulings regarding procedures used to adopt hunting regulations.  The process has resulted in all hunting regulations being adopted pursuant to the California Environmental Quality Act.  Although the process has been expensive and frustrating, and hunting opportunities have been foregone, many benefits in terms of the public's increased awareness of key issues facing wildlife populations have resulted from the litigation.

Kolenosky, George B., Pond, Bruce A., and Abraham, Kenneth F. Population characteristics of polar bears in southern Hudson Bay. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 301. 1994.

Abstract: During 1984-86, we captured 457 different polar bears (Ursus maritimus) 536 times along the Ontario coast of southern Hudson Bay.  The sex ratio of different bears captured (53 M:47 F) was similar (P = 0.30).  The mean age of captured males and females was 6.9 and 5.5 years, respectively.  The calculated mean annual survival rate for males and females was 0.89 and 0.85, respectively.  The mean natality rate for females ages 5-21 was 0.85.  Seventy-five percent of females _ 5 years were accompanied by young.  Most females produced their first litters at age 5 or 6.  There was no evidence of reproductive senescence in our samples as 4 of 6 females _ 19 years were accompanied by young.  Mean summer litter sizes ranged from 1.4 to 1.8 and averaged 1.6.  Weights of solitary females considered to be pregnant (338 ± 43 kg, N = 20) were heavier than the non-pregnant group (283 ± 47 kg, N = 14).  When captured, 38% of the yearlings were alone, suggesting a 2-year breeding interval.  We estimated a population of about 900 in southern Hudson Bay in 1985 and 1986.

Lee, John and Taylor, Mitchell. Aspects of the polar bear harvest in the Northwest Territories, Canada. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 237-243. 1994.

Abstract: We analyzed the age, sex, and chronology of the polar bear (Ursus martimus) harvest in the Northwest Territories (NWT) from 1979-80 and 1989-90.  The mean annual harvest during that period was 517 with a current quota of 617.  Sex and age information was obtained on approximately 90% of the total kill.  The harvest was selective for males (63%).  The mean age, sex ratio, and age composition varied according to area, type, and month of harvest.  Inuit hunters accounted for 88.8% of the harvest, 5.7% was taken by non-native sport hunters, 5.2% of the harvest was killed in conflicts with humans, and 0.3% was killed through illegal or unknown factors.  Sport hunting increased by a factor of 2 to 3 times over the sample period and the number of hunts comprised 10.6% of the allowable quota.  Forty-seven percent of the harvest occurred in the spring.  Accurate reporting of the sex composition of the harvest is required to determine sustainable harvest quotas.  Management of polar bears in the NWT is based on inventory studies, harvest sex ratio, and population modeling.

Xu, L., Y. Q. Ma, Z. X. Gao, and F. Y. Liu. Characteristics of dens and selection of denning habitat for bears in the South Xiaoxinganling Mountains, China. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 357-362. 1994.

Abstract: In a sample of 55 dens of bears (Selenarctos thibetanus ussuricus and Ursus arctos lasiotus) in the South Xiaoxinganling Mountains, we found 3 types:  tree dens (n = 23, 41.8%), ground dens (n = 30, 54.5%), and open-ground "nest" dens (n = 2, 3.6%).  Most dens are lined with different bedding materials.  Half of the tree den entrances face up, the rest mostly face east, southeast, and northwest.  Most ground den entrances face northeast.  The majority of dens are in mixed conifer-broadleaf forest on middle slopes that face east.  Den trees generally are Populus ussuriensis, Pinus koraiensis, and Tilia spp.  Average slope is 17.8 degrees for tree dens, 24.2 degrees for ground dens, and 28.5 degrees for open-ground "nest" dens.  Human activity affects the distribution of dens (except for tree dens).  Elevations range from 300 to 500 m for the majority of tree dens, from 400 to 700 m for most ground dens.  The number of dens decreases as elevation increases.  Dense understory plants are very important for ground dens and open-ground "nest" dens.

Mace, Richard D., Manley, Timothy L., and Aune, Keith E. Factors affecting the photographic detection rate of grizzly bears in the Swan Mountains, Montana. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 245-251. 1994.

Abstract: Seven seasonal population estimates were derived from 1989 to 1991 for grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in the Swan Mountains of western Montana using a capture-recapture model for closed populations.  Mace et al. (1994) discussed in detail the study design and population modeling procedures, which used systematic snaring for initial capture and self-activating cameras for recapture.  Twenty-one marked grizzly bears within the camera grids formed the foundation for recapture analysis.  We generated 27 photographic records of detections and 71 nondetections in 7 photo sessions.  On average, the marked population we sampled was dominated by adult female (29.5%) and adult male (22.6%) grizzly bears.  Nearly an equal number of male and female bears were detected on film, but the nondetection sample was skewed towards females (73.3%).  Adult males were more frequently detected than adult females or females with young.  Most detections (66.6%) were of bears with a prior history of detection.  Adult males moved greater distances and consequently encountered more camera stations than other age-gender classes.  Generally, movements for all age-gender classes were greatest during the spring and decreased thereafter.  When the 7 photo sessions were pooled, it was shown that grizzly bears were not exposed to many camera stations (x = 1.6, SD = 1.8) and bears we successfully detected were confronted with significantly more stations (x = 2.3, SD = 2.3) than those we failed to detect (x = 1.3, SD = 1.44).  Logistic regression showed that detections decreased over time.  We concluded that differential movement patterns among age-gender classes played an exceedingly important role in photographic detection.  The precision of population estimates could be improved by grid densities > 5-8 camera stations/100 km² for grizzly bear populations with similar age-gender structure.  Recommendations to increase and sustain precision of population estimates using cameras are provided.

Mano, Tsutomu. Home range and habitat use of brown bears in the southwestern Oshima Peninsula, Hokkaido. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 319-325. 1994.

Abstract: Movement, home range, and habitat use of 10 (7 M and 3 F) brown bears (Ursus arctos yesoensis) were investigated by radiotracking in southwestern Oshima Peninsula, Hokkaido, from May 1987 through May 1990.  The annual home-range size was 28.1-39.1 km² for 1 female.  Male home-range size was larger than that of females, although no males were monitored throughout the year.  Lower deciduous natural forest areas such as beech-oak (Fagus crenata)-(Quercus monoglica var. grosseserrata) forest and maple-linden (Acer mono)-(Tilia japonica) forest were used by bears intensively, but subalpine areas such as sasa-birch (Sasa kurilensis or S. senanensis)-(Betula ermani) forest and sasa community were rarely used and usage was restricted.  Food availability could influence the habitat selection by the bears.

Martinka, Cliff J. Reflections on the recent history of bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 1-5. 1994.

Abstract: During the 25 years from 1967 to 1992, public interest and environmental laws stimulated conservation efforts and provided a rationale for expanded scientific efforts relating to bears.  As the years progressed, field technology advanced rapidly and knowledge emerged as a powerful conservation tool.  A survey of colleagues with a professional interest in bears resulted in a reading list of 11 technical publications that were considered important contributions to the literature for the period. Historical trends are used to envision future conservation based on the concept that bears and humans are biological competitors.

McCarthy, Thomas M. and Seavoy, Roger J. Reducing nonsport losses attributable to food conditioning:  human and bear behavior modification in an urban environment. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 75-84. 1994.

Abstract: Increased bear activity associated with food conditioning led to excessive nonsport kills in Juneau, Alaska.  Improvements in garbage handling were sought through public education and enforcement of sanitation ordinances.  Aversive conditioning, both physical and ingestional, were used to change bear behavior and reduce nonsport losses.  Rubber bullets were used on 14 bears and an emetic (Thiobendazol) was added to garbage cans.  All but 1 bear continued to forage in town.  Garbage handling was improved, but current containment ordinances failed to functionally limit food availability to bears.  Education improved public attitudes and understanding of the problem.  Aversives may be useful in settings where single source anthropogenic food sources occur, but are of questionable value in urban locales. 

McClellan, Bruce and Reiner, David C. A review of bear evolution. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 85-96. 1994.

Abstract: Ursidae is a young family, evolving from early canids during the late Oligocene and early Miocene, about 20-25 million years ago.  The family has frequently been divided into subfamilies.  Although debated, these often include:  (1) Hemicyoninae, (2) Agriotheriinae, (3) Tremarctinae, (4) Ursinae, and (5) Ailuropodidae.  Based on scatterred literature published over the past century, we trace the evolutionary lineage of the various genera and species found in these subfamilies; most are extinct, 8 species remain.  Many if not most of the relationships have been disputed for many years and we may be far from the definitive history.  Speculated causes of extinction usually involved climate change and competition.  Primitive man may have been the major competitor of some extinct species and modern man is definitely a major influence on bear evolution today.

McLaughlin, Craig R., Matula, George J. Jr., and O'Connor, Raymond J. Synchronous reproduction by Maine black bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 471-479. 1994.

Abstract: We studied reproduction by black bears (Ursus americanus) in 3 dissimilar Maine study areas from 1982 to 1991.  Nuts of American beech (Fagus grandifolia) were the primary fall food souce in Spectacle Pond, a major fall food in Stacyville, and rarely available in Bradford. We visited 396 dens, including 303 dens of 96 adult females, and examined 154 newborn litters.  Alternate-year beechnut crop failures appeared to maintain reproductive synchrony at Spectacle Pond, where 73 of 77 (95%) litters were produced on odd-numbered years following abundant beechnut crops.  Most bears at Spectacle Pond began to reproduce at 6 years of age, and had 2-year intervals between litters, even after litter loss.  Eighty percent of breeding females (i.e., adults without cubs) produced litters at Spectacle Pond when beechnuts were abundant, but breeding females lost weight and only 13% produced litters when beechnuts were scarce.  Reproductive synchrony was less pronounced at Stacyville and Bradford, where most bears began to produce litters at 4 years of age, and generally produced subsequent litters 1 year after litter loss.  At Stacyville and Bradford, bears maintained stable weights regardless of beechnut abundance, and most breeding females produced litters every year.  Where bears depend upon few fall foods, food failures may synchronize female reproductive schedules and impact population age structures.  Adequate understanding of bear reproductive biology includes estimates of litter losses and resulting inter-litter intervals for projections of cub production.

McLean, Peter K. and Pelton, Michael R. Estimates of population density and growth of black bears in the Smoky Mountains. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 253-261. 1994.

Abstract: To estimate population abundance, data were collected from 1,239 black bears (Ursus americanus) trapped in 3 areas of the Smoky Mountains (SM), 1972-89.  Bears were tagged, tattooed, and released, and using the Jolly-Seber open population model, density estimates ranged from 0.09 to 0.35 bears/km².  Year-to-year density estimates and the observed rate of growth (0-2%) indicated a stable to slightly increasing population.  The predictions of the population model, BEAR, indicated the importance of hard mast to this population; in years of good mast, the numbers of bears increased, whereas in years of poor or varying mast availability the population declined.

Mertzanis, George A. Brown bear in Greece:  distribution, present status--ecology of a northern Pindus subpopulation. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 187-197. 1994.

Abstract: Brown bear distribution range in Greece comprises 2 distinct nuclei of unequal size, covering a total of about 11,000 km², and seems to have stabilized for the last 20 years after dramatic regression in the 19th century.  Extra-limital sporadic occurrence of bears southwards of the western population nucleus down to the 39th parallel, as well as unexplored sectors of potential bear occurrence in the northern parts of the country, may add new data to the species chorology in Greece.  There is a risk of further internal fragmentation of the western distribution nucleus.  Human-caused mortality appears to be the main factor of populations' negative trends.  Brown bear food habits were determined by investigations in a 900 km² bear area located in the northern Pindus range and scat analysis (N = 343).  Only plant material was found in 77% of the samples, whereas 17% contained both plant and animal material, and 6% only animal material (mostly insects-ants).  Omnivory and opportunistic strategy appeared as the main characteristics of bears' feeding behavior. Brown bear annual activity cycle was determined by data on signs of presence and activity (N = 664).  It appears in relation to trophic optimas and mesoclimatic conditions of the habitat.  There is evidence of winter inactivity.  Brown bear habitat preferences determined by Marcum & Loftsgaarden's method (N = 289 bear locations) show seasonal influence of types of vegetation communities on habitat use.  Bear-human interactions level seems critical:  poaching and logging are the main causes of habitat deterioration and population decrease.

Miller, Sterling D. Black bear reproduction and cub survivorship in south-central Alaska. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 263-273. 1994.

Abstract: Reproductive data collected during a period of 11 years are presented for a low-density black bear (Ursus americanus) population occupying marginal habitat along the Susitna River.  These data are contrasted with data from higher-density populations on the Kenai Peninsula also in south-central Alaska (Schwartz and Franzmann 1991), thought to occupy better habitat.  Low reproductive and recruitment rates and high cub mortality rates were found in the Susitna population.  Mean litter size was 2.1 for newborn cubs (range = 1-4), and 59% of newborn cubs survived for 1 year (survivorship = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.42-0.66).  A large proportion of adult females were without cubs following an apparent berry crop failure and again 5 years later.  This generated pulses of cubs produced 2-3 years and 6-7 years after the berry crop failure.  First year survivorship in the Susitna population was lower than in the 2 Kenai populations studied by Schwartz and Franzmann (1991) (P = 0.06 and < 0.01).  The parameters in the 3 Alaskan populations that varied in response to different environmental conditions were first year survivorship, recruitment interval, and age at first reproduction; litter size was not responsive.  For purposes of population modeling, recruitment interval will usually be a more useful statistic than birth interval beacuse of early mortality of entire litters.  In the Susitna area, black bear productivity and calculated consumption rates of moose calves were similar to findings in the least productive Kenai population.  The Susitna data were consistent with the hypothesis of Schwartz and Franzmann (1991) that productivity in Kenai bears was dependent on calf consumption rates during spring.

Mills, Judy and Servheen, Christopher. The Asian trade in bears and bear parts:  impacts and conservation recommendations. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 161-167. 1994.

Abstract: The trade in bears and/or bear parts for use in tradional medicines, in cuisine, and as pets is widespread in Asia.  The value of certain bear parts by weight, in some Asian countries, exceeds many times the price of gold, creating a market that effectively places a price on the head of every wild bear.  The bile from bear gallbladders is an especially coveted medicine in China, Korea, Taiwan, and Japan, where it is used to treat a variety of serious ailments.  Bear paws are considered both a "tonic" food and a gourmet delicacy in these populous and wealthy nations.  Current levels of trade in bears and bear parts, coupled with ongoing habitat loss throughout Asia, suggest a continuing decline in the sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), the brown bear (Ursus arctos), and the sloth bear (Melursus ursinus).  To prevent the decline and possible extinction of Asian bear populations, management and education efforts must address this trade at both supply and demand levels.

Moir, William H. and Huckaby, Laurie S. Displacement ecology of trees near upper timberline. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 35-42. 1994.

Abstract: Tree invasions into meadows near upper timberline reduce diversity of habitat and diminish high-elevation food sources for black (Ursus americanus) and grizzly (Ursus arctos) bears.  How serious is this threat in view of future climate change?  Tree invasions observed in the Pacific Northwest to New Mexico suggest that climatic restraints to forest expansion have relaxed since the end of the Little Ice Age.  Because climate patterns are large-scale phenomena, geographic synchronicity in tree establishment might be expected if a warming trend began.  When tree invasion chronologies from Canada to New Mexico were compared, 2 synchronicities of climate and tree invasions appeared, indicating a possible climatic influence.  However, forest retreat and meadow advance are also commonly observed at high elevations.  The mechanism of retreat is usually fire followed by slow or unsuccessful regeneration of forest.  There is no clear evidence based upon tree seedling chronologies that meadows will continue to be lost on the basis of climate change alone.  Climate warming may set the stage for forest advance, but tree invasions are highly sensitive to local conditions.  Concentrated grazing by domestic or wild animals in high-elevation meadows may trigger tree invasion by reducing competition to tree seedlings from established meadow vegetation.  Prescribed fires or natural fires allowed to burn within prescriptions can be used as a tool for maintaining meadows and bear habitat under some of the projected climate change scenarios for western North America.

Noyce, Karen V. and Garshelis, David L. Body size and blood characteristics as indicators of condition and reproductive performance in black bears. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 481-496. 1994.

Abstract: We examined relationships between reproductive performance of female Minnesota black bears (Ursus americanus) and various potential indicators of nutritional condition during late hibernation.  Litter size (n = 101 litters) was influenced more by litter order (first or subsequent) than by maternal condition, except perhaps in very large females.  An increased proportion of male cub births corresponded with increased maternal waight and serum alkaline phosphatase (ALKP) and decreased serum creatinine (CR).  Weight and growth of cubs and yearlings were closely related to mother's size; they also correlated positively with maternal ALKP, and negatively with serum total protein (TP), and mean corpuscular volume (MCV).  Cub survival was affected only when mother's weight 2 months postpartum was below about 65 kg.  No Juvenile females (2-8 years old) weighing < 41 kg in March produced their furst cubs the following spring, but 57% of those above this threshold weight produced cubs.  Litter frequency and yearling recruitment were unrelated to maternal condition.  Life history parameters of black bears appear to respond to declining nutrition in the following sequence:  (1) litter size declines, then stabilizes across a broad range of maternal weights; (2) age of first reproduction increases; (3) juvenile survival decreases; (4) first-year cub survival decreases; and (5) litter frequency decreases.  Better definition of these relationships, particularly at nutritional extremes, will likely require collaborative efforts of researchers studying diverse populations.

Obbard, Martyn E. and Kolenosky, George B. Seasonal movements of female black bears in the boreal forest of Ontario in relation to timber harvesting. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 363. 1994.

Abstract: From June 1989 to November 1991 movements of radio-collared female black bears were monitored in the boreal forest of northern Ontario.  Bears emerged from dens from mid to late April, then occupied a summer range that included the denning site until late July to early August.  Summer home ranges overlapped extensively in this high-density (0.6 bears/km²) population.  Bears moved to late-summer foraging areas where blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), bristly sarsaparilla (Aralia hispida), and Mountain ash (Sorbus spp.) were abundant.  These areas had been clear cut from 2 to 10 years previously.  Distance moved to these foraging areas varied from 5 to 104 km and most bears returned to the same general area in consecutive years.  Most bears returned to their summer ranges between early September and early October and entered dens from late September to early November.  Preliminary results indicate that open areas created by timber harvesting are important late-summer/fall foraging areas for black bears in the boreal forest at least up to 10 years after timber harvesting.

Olson, Tamara L. and Gilbert, Barrie K. Variable impacts of people on brown bear use of an Alaskan river. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 97-106. 1994.

Abstract: A quantitative study of the behavior of brown bears (Ursus arctos) was undertaken at Brooks River in Katmai National Park and Preserve 1988-90 to determine whether human activity affected use of the area by females with young.  Over the 3 fall seasons 862 hours of systematic observations were recorded or not (late Aug through mid-Oct salmon spawning period).  Ten different females with young were observed, 4 of them over a complete reproductive cycle.  Each female was classified according to human tolerance as "habituated" (n = 5), or "nonhabituated" (n = 5).  the seasonal patterns of family group activity were examined according to habituation class.  There was a direct relationship between the distribution of river use by nonhabituated family group and proximity to Brooks Camp, while no relationship was found for habituated family groups. Use of areas by nonhabituated families increased near Brooks Camp late in the season, when human activity and noise in camp decreased.  Availability of fish for bears was highest in areas near camp; however, nonhabituated females with young used these areas significantly less than habituated families.

Pacas, Charles J. and Paquet, Paul C. Analysis of black bear home range using a Geographic Information System. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 419-425. 1994.

Abstract: Habitat loss adjacent to Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP), as is common on nature reserves throughout North America, is creating insular pockets of wilderness and wildlife.  Consequently, successful management of black bear (Ursus americanus) populations within the area of RMNP requires an understanding of trans-boundary movement, spatial distribution, and location specific areas of mortality.  The Canadian Parks Service (CPS) is mandated to preserve black bears in a naturally regulated system, while the Manitoba Department of Natural Resources (MNR) is required to maintain a black bear population of sufficient size to support existing consumptive and nonconsumptive uses.  Information derived from radio monitoring 47 black bears of mixed ages, sexes, and reproductive status over a 3-year period was analyzed using a Geographic Information System (GIS).  Movements of individual bears were analyzed relative to the availability and distribution of home ranges, den locations, and unnatural foods at landfill locations and hunter bait sites.  Implications and applications of GIS are discussed.

Peyton, Bernard. Conservation in the developing world:  ideas on how to proceed. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 115-127. 1994.

Abstract: Whereas many short-term goals to maintain bears and biodiversity target biological concerns and use preservationist strategies, long-term maintenance depends on improving human welfare and development.  The focus of this paper is to provide ways to resolve conflicts between short-and long-term goals and to improve the delivery of inputs to human and wildlife targets in developing countries.  The entire world community has a stake and responsibility in the outcome of bear conservation.  The importance of bears to the progression from permanent agriculture to regional development, and to national, and international security is discussed.

Picton, Harold D. and Kendall, Katherine C. Chromatographic (TLC) differentiation of grizzly bear and black bear scats. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 497-501. 1994.

Abstract: While past work concluded that thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was inadequate for the separation of grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis) and black bear (U. americanus) scats, our study found differences adequate for species separation.  A key was constructed using 19 of 40 data points recorded on each (N = 356 profiles of 178) known-species scat.  Accuracy was best for late summer scats (94%).  Methods for specimen preparation, analysis, and reading the TLC profiles are discussed.  Factors involved in scat variation were tested. 

Reid, Donald G. The focus and role of biological research in giant panda conservation. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Management 9, 23-33. 1994.

Abstract: The Ministry of Forestry of the Peoples Republic of China and World Wide Fund for Nature have cooperated since 1980 in an effort to conserve the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in the wild in China.  This conservation project has 4 major components:  biological research, population survey, management planning, and training.  This paper first evaluates the focus and results of the biological research using a framework based on population viability analysis and life-history theory. Demographic parameters and the causes of their variation are still poorly understood.  A number of habitat-related ecological processes are relatively well understood.  Second the paper assesses the dominant role of biological research in the project.  The principal threats to panda population viability are anthropogenic:  habitat loss and poaching.  However, this conservation project has not sufficiently addressed the socio-economic conditions and behaviors that cause and influence the threats to panda persistence.  Incorporating social scientists along with biological scientists in a team of investigators at the inception of a conservation project should make the project more successful.

Revenko, Igor A. Brown bear (Ursus arctos piscator) reaction to humans on Kamchatka. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 107-108. 1994.

Abstract: I documented 270 personal encounters with brown bears (Ursus arctos piscator) when the latter detected my presence.  Bear reactions were avoidance (70%), determine human and move away (14%), indifference (12%), threat demonstration (3%), and attack (1%).  I also analyzed the causes and circumstances of 15 bear attacks on humans.

Riley, Shawn J., Aune, Keith, Mace, Richard D., and Madel, Michael J. Translocation of nuisance grizzly bears in northwestern Montana. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 567-573. 1994.

Abstract: We examined 7 variables from 103 translocations of nuisance grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) to (1) describe the type of bears involved in conflicts, (2) determine factors affecting translocation success, and (3) test the hypothesis that translocation is a feasible method to control mortality of grizzly bears.  Males comprised 59% of all translocated bears.  The median age of all bears was 3.5 years, and the modal age was 2.5 years.  Subadults comprised a significantly greater proportion of the nuisance bear population than the wild population.  Residential, livestock, garbage, and apiary oriented offenses represented 46%, 30%, 20%, and 4% of the total, respectively.  The success rate of bears > 1.5 years was 44% for first time translocations prior to 1990, and 15% for bears moved > 1 time.  Sex was the only variable that significanly predicted success.  Females were more likely to be successfully translocated than males except for bears associated with livestock damage.  Thirty-eight percent of the translocated bears died within 2 years of translocation.  The average cost of a capture and translocation was $1,038.00, not including personnel salaries and administrative costs.  An aggressive program focused on preventive action is recommended.

Rossell, C. Reed Jr. and Litvaitis, John A. Application of harvest data to examine responses of black bears to land-use changes. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 275-281. 1994.

Abstract: Habitat of black bears (Ursus americanus) in the eastern United States has been substantially altered by increases in human populations and associated habitat change.  Radio telemetry has been the primary technique used in examining the effects of development on bears.  However, most state agencies do not have the resources necessary to collect long-term telemetry data, but do routinely collect annual harvest data to monitor trends in their bear populations.  We investigated the potential use of annual harvest data for assessing impacts of habitat alteration on local bear abundance.  We compared bear harvests within townships of New Hampshire to changes in human populations, road densities, and land-use patterns during 1961-84.  Harvests tended to be negatively related with national forest roads and agricultural land.  Comparisons of long-term harvest data with human demographic variables also may provide baseline information on threshold densitites of human demographic variables that affect local bear abundance.  However, before accurate conclusions can be reached, additional information is required to improve the sensitivity of the harvest data.  We recommend that wildlife managers index hunter effort, monitor the availability of major food used by bears, and verify the exact location of each bear kill.

Schoen, John W., Flynn, Rodney W., Suring, Lowell H., Titus, Kimberly, and Beier, Lavern R. Habitat-capability model for brown bear in southeast Alaska. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 327-337. 1994.

Abstract: Habitat-capability models are necessary for evaluating the effects of forest management on the management of indicator species (including brown bear [Ursus arctos]) of the Tongass National Forest.  Habitat-use data from 95 radio-collared brown bears on Admiralty and Chichagof Islands were used to develop this habitat-capability model.  Each of 20 habitats was assigned a habitat-capability value based on bear habitat preference or best professional judgement.  The effects of human activity and resource development on brown bears were estimated, based on best professional judgement, as reductions in habitat capability within zones of human influence.

Schooley, Robert L., McLaughlin, Craig R., Krohn, William B., and Matula, George J. Jr. Spatiotemporal patterns of macrohabitat use by female black bears during fall. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 9, 339-348. 1994.

Abstract: We compared habitat use and movements of 82 radio-collared female black bears (Ursus americanus) at 3 dissimilar study areas in Maine